Euphemisms, Proverbs, Allusions, and Cognition:
A Study of Two Poems by Antonio Machado
Pedro J. Chamizo-Domínguez / Carmen M.
Bretones Callejas
Universidad de
Málaga/ Universidad de Almería
pjchd at uma. es / cbretones at hotmail. com
Resumen
EUFEMISMOS,
PROVERBIOS, ALUSIONES Y COGNICIÓN: ESTUDIO DE DOS POEMAS DE ANTONIO MACHADO
Entre los
diversos instrumentos que conforman el estilo de un escritor dado (Vg.
sintácticos, semánticos, etc.), vamos a analizar en este trabajo dos de ellos:
la alusión y el eufemismo. Y ello de cara a ilustrar cómo, por medio de estos
instrumentos estilísticos, A. Machado consigue efectos cognitivos y critica dos
sistemas filosóficos dados en dos cortísimos poemas.
Eufemismos y alusiones no sólo tienen efectos estéticos y retóricos, sino que
también tienen efectos cognitivos. Y esta función cognitiva está relacionada
con las presuposiciones y los conocimientos previos de los hablantes. Debido a
ello son posibles diferentes niveles de lectura de un texto en función de los
diferentes niveles de presuposiciones que hayan hecho los hablantes.
Palabras clave
Eufemismo,
proverbio, alusión, Antonio Machado
ABSTRACT
Among the various
devices that conform a given writer’s style (i.e.
syntactic, semantic, and so on), we will ll analyse
in this paper two of them, allusion and euphemism. And so, in order to illustrate
how, by means of these stylistic devices, A. Machado gets cognitive effects and
criticizes two given philosophical systems in two extremely short poems.
Euphemisms and allusions do perform meanings in cognitive domains not merely
aesthetic or rhetorical ones. And this function is related to previous
knowledge and presuppositions of the speakers. For that reason several levels
of readings are possible according to the different levels of presuppositions
made by speakers.
KEY WORDS
euphemism, proverb,
allusion, Antonio Machado
1. Allusion,
euphemism, and knowledge
By
comparing the plain style of the language of science and the one of literature
and by using a word which alludes to theological jargon, the Spanish
philosopher J. Ortega y Gasset agues that “en ciencia tiene valor precisamente
lo que se puede repetir: mas el estilo (de un poeta/escritor)
es siempre unigénito” (in science it is
worth just what can be repeated: but the style (of a poet/writer) is
always unigenit) (Ortega, 1983: VI 263. Our emphasis). This means both that a given author’s style can’t be repeated and
that every writer uses a peculiar style which defines himself from the rest of
the writers and, although it can be glossed, it can’t be “translated” into any other style. Accordingly, a special
hermeneutic effort is required on the part of the reader in order to achieve a
plausible understanding of what the literary author is trying to communicate.
And although Ortega doesn’t mention it, what is asserted about literary language
can be asserted about everyday language and communication. Among the various
devices that can define a writer’s style we’ll mainly analyze two
of them, allusion and euphemism; and so in both a theoretical example of
everyday language and two actual short poems by A. Machado. Both allusion and
euphemism are linguistic devices which we mainly use where we can’t or will not use the words that literally mean the
objects or persons because we will get some particular stylistic and cognitive
effects and/or because these words can be offensive, injurious, politically
incorrect, or socially inconvenient, either about the denotatum
or to the audience, or both (Allan & Burridge,
1991: 11). Now, in order to achieve their cognitive effects allusions and
euphemisms should be necessarily ambiguous (Chamizo Domínguez, 2004: 45-46). This means that utterances in
which allusions or euphemisms appear can be understood in at least two
different ways. Namely literal and tropical ways. And,
as a result of that semantic ambiguity becomes unavoidable when we allude to or
speak euphemistically, while, when we use the words that literally mean the
objects or persons, semantic ambiguity usually disappears or is minimised (Nerlich & Chamizo Domínguez, 1999; and Nerlich
& Clarke, 2001).
If utterances in which allusions and
euphemisms appear are necessarily ambiguous from a semantic point of view,
their concrete meanings in a particular context are a matter of implicatures both conventional and conversational and their
adequate interpretation and cognitive contents will depend on the number of
suppositions and suggestions that the hearer is able or wants to do (Grice,
1989). When allusions and euphemisms are widely used by a given writer they
define his/her style at least in the texts in which these figures of speech
appear. And, what is more relevant yet, both work as a kind of knowing wink
looking for a special kind of reader/hearer who is (supposedly) able to
understand writer/speaker’s knowing winks. A
result of that is the fact that the writer counts on an active, learned, and
well-informed reader who is able to distinguish the different levels of reading
that the author try to drive at. When the hearer is not able or does not want
to be cooperative the cognitive effects of allusions and euphemisms disappear.
The phenomenon involving a hearer who is not or does not want to be cooperative
is usually exploited in jokes and/or humorous works, where the hearer usually
gets a different implicature that the one the speaker
wants to achieve.
Let us exemplify these thoughts by
appealing to an example. Let’s us consider
[1] The actress
from Athens (Georgia) did not take part in The Cheyenne Social Club.
In
order to achieve an adequate understanding of [1] the hearer should identify
who is the person alluded to and what means The Cheyenne Social Club.
Now, [1] can receive at least two different levels of interpretations according
to two different degrees of complexity of reading. The first one is the level
which corresponds to the most elementary reading and which would give the
obvious sense of [1] in agreement with the literal meanings of the words
appearing in it. This reading can be made by any speaker who has an acceptable
command in English, but who can’t or wants not
going beyond what, prima facie, [1] says. Accordingly, [1] basically
says three things:
1.
That a certain actress was born or lives in Athens or
is closely related to this town.
2.
That she did not perform in a given performance.
3.
That, since we are speaking of an actress, The
Cheyenne Social Club might be the title of a movie or play.
4.
That perhaps there is a movie entitled The Cheyenne
Social Club.
This
level of interpretation is not false at all, but it is, quite obviously,
deficient. So, our reader –or a better
informed reader– can try to
get a further interpretation in which s/he goes beyond the literal meanings of
the words of [1]. Now our reader will attempt to identify the person alluded to
as the actress from Athens and the actual meaning of the title The
Cheyenne Social Club. To achieve it s/he will to make a series of prior
assumptions and suppositions concerning both the subject and the predicate of
[1].
Concerning
the subject of [1] and for achieving these goals s/he could give the following
(or similar) steps.
1.
If the speaker uses the periphrasis the actress
from Athens instead of the proper name of this person, it might be because
s/he thinks I’m able to identify her.
2.
Periphrases
such as the actress from Athens are really cases of antonomasia and can
be used when a given characteristic (to be a famous actress, in this case) can
be predicated of a person or object without taking serious risks of confusion
because the person alluded is the most relevant citizen of that town.
3.
It should exist a famous actress who is born or is closely related to
this town.
4.
I know that
well-known actress Kim Bassinger was born in Athens
and I also know she did not take part in The Cheyenne Social Club.
5.
So, the
description the actress from Athens stands for the proper name Kim Bassinger.
As for the
predicate of [1] the hearer should give the following (or similar) steps.
1.
The Cheyenne Social Club (1970) is the title of a
well-known classic western directed by Gene Kelly whose more relevant actors
were James Stewart (the character of John O’Hanlan) and Henry Fonda
(the character of Harley Sullivan).
2.
This movie deals with a rude cowboy (the character of
John O’Hanlan) who inherited The
Cheyenne Social Club from his brother without knowing what it were.
3.
That John O’Hanlan and his friend
Harley Sullivan travelled to Cheyenne (Oklahoma) to take possession of John O’Hanlan brother’ legacy.
4.
That they firstly thought that The Cheyenne Social
Club was a kind of country club or something similar to it.
5.
That they eventually realized that this supposed “country club” actually was a
brothel or bordello.
6.
That the movie’s plot plays on the
literal and euphemistic meanings of The Cheyenne Social Club and its
subsequent misunderstandings.
7.
So, The Cheyenne Social Club is a euphemism and
stands for ‘brother’, ‘bordello’, or ‘red-light house’.
Once
these assumptions have been made, the hearer of [1] is able to understand all
the hidden implicatures in this utterance. But this
interpretative process is pretty complicate and, obviously, no any hearer is able
to achieve it because of may not know that Kim Bassinger
was born in Athens (Georgia), because of s/he may not know the film, because of
s/he may not know the movie plot, or because of any other reason.
2. Philosophy
inside literature
If the interpretation of utterances
in daily life is already complicated, it will be more complicated when we
encounter literary texts, and even more so when these are literary texts with
philosophical pretensions.
Let
us analyse the cases of two short poems of Proverbios
y cantares by the Spanish poet A. Machado, which
have these philosophical pretensions and which, surprisingly, are neither
quoted nor alluded (and, obviously, not commented) by Cerezo
Galán (1975) in his monographic book on A. Machado’s philosophy. In each one of these poems there is a
totally complex criticism made by a philosopher, contained in only three lines.
In
these literary texts, in which a philosophical thesis is criticised and/or
exposed, a more active participation is usually required on behalf of the
reader for it to be completely understood than that required for a written text
according to the ways which are normally considered as canonical to
philosophise. In effect, in a philosophical text, written both according to the
usual norms and according to other more usual genera dicendi
and styles in philosophy (i.e. essays, manuals, treatises, dialogues, etc.), it
seems quite convenient that the number of suppositions which the reader is
obliged to make may be reduced to a minimum; and that the expounded or
criticised thesis may be demonstrated with as much detail as possible, either
by the rational process, or the documentary process, or by both at the same
time. On the contrary, when a philosophical thesis is to be expounded in a
literary text or by means of an aphoristic style (i.e. some works by F. Bacon
or F. Nietzsche), the number of suppositions which the reader is called upon to
make can be multiplied. This, along with the aphoristic character these texts
usually have, allows the reader to ignore the long and bothersome demonstrative
process. However, all that implies that the possibility of establishing diverse
levels of reading in a literary text with philosophical pretensions is greater
than in the case of a philosophical text of the same duration, written
according the literary and canonical norms which are usual in philosophical
disciplines. And it should be stressed that aphoristic style has been used not
only by literary writers but also by thinkers who usually are considered as “philosophers”, such as
Democritus, Sir F. Bacon, or F. Nietzsche as well.
2.1. Machado as a
critic of Descartes’ philosophy
Let us consider the following
verses by Machado:
[2] “En mi soledad
he visto cosas
muy claras
que no son
verdad.” (Machado, 1988:
629).
[2.1] “In my loneliness
I have seen very
clear things
which are not true” (Our translation).
[2.3] “In my solitude
I’ve seen very clearly
things that aren’t so” (Machado, 1982: 181).
In this
text we can find some verses in which at least two levels of interpretation are
possible, levels in which different degrees of complexity are being gradually
acquired, according to the higher or lower complexity of the reader’s suppositions.
The
first level is the one which corresponds to the most elementary reading, and
which would give the obvious sense of the text in agreement with the literal
meanings of the words appearing in it. Here the only supposition that must be
done consists in accepting that what is seen clearly must be true. Accordingly,
these verses say four things, at first sight:
1.
That the poet has been alone.
2.
That, in a first moment, he saw something in a clear
way.
3.
That later, that which he saw in a clear way proved to
be deceptive.
4.
That the poet has been the object of an illusion.
This
interpretative level is not false at all but it is, quite obviously,
insufficient. A second interpretative level would correspond with an attempt to
go beyond what the text, prima facie, says and to try to identify the
interlocutor of the text. At this second level, some type of non-literal
interpretation of some of the terms used in the poem should be tried, as well
as making more complex suppositions than in the previous case. Accordingly, the
suppositions that could be made should be the following ones:
1. That with in my loneliness Machado
is referring, without citing it by name, to some character in which loneliness
could be an essential element in the starting point and development of its
thoughts.
2.
That
this is perfectly verified in the case of the French philosopher R. Descartes.
The texts by Descartes in which he insists on his loneliness –either physical
or intellectual–, and which he will synthesize in his motto solus
procedo are abundant throughout his literary
work. Nevertheless, the most famous text
is possibly the Discours
de
3. That I have seen can mean
metaphorically I have met or I have known, according to the well-known
metaphor which refers to mental sphere in terms of physical vision (Chamizo Domínguez, 1998: 115-125;
and Sweetser, 1990: 23-48).
4. That Descartes has maintained that what is
seen with clarity is a criterion of certainty and truth. The places in which
Descartes refers to clarity as a criterion of certainty and truth are abundant
throughout his work. As an example, let’s see the following text: “Ac proinde jam videor pro regula generali posse statuere, illud omne esse verum,
quod valde clare et distincte
percipio”. (Descartes, 1973b : VII, 35). The
French translation (Descartes, 1973c: IX-1, 27) presents
some differences and it says as follow:
“Et partant il me semble que des-ja je puis establir pour regle generale, que toutes les choses que nous concevons fort
clairement et fort distinctement, sont toutes vrayes”.
On the notion of clarity in
Descartes’ work, see, (Curley, 1986: 153-176, and Mattern,
1986: 473-490),
5. That when Machado testifies that, in his
loneliness, he has seen clear things that were not true,
he is depriving Descartes of authority by means of a contrary example.
And that is because, for Machado, the truth cannot be shown in the
loneliness of a suspicious reflection of solipsist, but in the common search,
as the following verses show:
[3] “¿Tu
verdad? No,
y ven conmigo a buscarla,
la tuya, guárdatela” (Machado, 1988:
629).
[3.1] “Your truth? No, the
Truth,
and come with me to look for it,
yours, keep it for you” (Our translation).
[3.2] “Your
truth? No, Truth;
come seek it with me.
As for
yours, you can keep it”
(Machado (1982: 199).
According to this second level of interpretation Machado’s allusion to Descartes becomes
pretty clear as well as Machado’s poem
becomes a criticism and a disqualification of Descartes’ philosophical starting
point. In other words, on the contrary of Descartes’ philosophical methodology, Machado
basically argues that searching for truth is the task of a searching in
dialogue and collaboration with other people and thinkers. And Machado’s allusions to Cartesian philosophy
can be demonstrated by appealing to other texts from Proverbios
y cantares, even though it is not a criticism of
Cartesian philosophy:
[3.4] “Ya hubo quien pensó:
cogito
ergo non sum.
¡Qué exageración!” (Machado,
1988: 637. Original italics).
[3.5] “Someone
already/even thought:
cogito ergo
sum.
What an exaggeration!” (Our translation).
[3.6] “Now
they’ve thought of this:
Cogito ergo non sum.
What an overstatement!”
(Machado, 1982: 191. Original italics)
2.2. Machado as a critic
of Kant’s philosophy
Let us analyse a rather more complex
example. There cannot be too many among the readers of Antonio Machado who,
because of their lack of prior contextual knowledge and given the many assumptions
that it is necessary to make, have access to the implications of the following
lines:
[4] “¡Tartarín en
Koenigsberg!
Con el puño en
la mejilla,
todo lo llegó a
saber”
(Machado, 1988: 641).
[4.1]
“Tartarin in Koenigsberg!
With his fist
against his cheek,
He came to know
everything” (Our translation).
[4.2]
“Tartarin in Koenigsberg!
Propping cheek on
fist,
he learned all there
was to know” (Machado, 1982: 197).
This eight syllable tercet has a wide range of implications, which will vary
considerably according to the level of education of the different readers. So,
we might imagine at least four successive levels of reading depending on the
prior information that each of the four readers may bring to the poem. And
these levels do not cancel each other out, but rather complement each other so
that the higher levels subsume the truth discovered lower down in the scale of
interpretation.
The first level that we might
imagine, the most elementary one, might be the level of that reader who has a
perfect knowledge of Spanish (or English when translated) but does not have any
special geographical, literary or philosophical knowledge. This could well be
the case of schoolchildren whose literature teacher has set Machado’s text for them to gloss. For this type of reader, for
whom we assume an elementary prior knowledge, Machado’s lines would not say much more than what they say prima
facie. That is:
1.
That somebody called Tartarin
must have existed (indicated by the use of the past of the verb llegó a saber [came
to know]).
2.
That he must have lived in (indicated by the
preposition en [in]) or usually visited a place called Koenigsberg.
3.
That he placed his fist against his cheek.
4.
That, with this gesture, he came to know all that
there was to know.
The interpretation corresponding to
this level of information is not false, but it is, quite obviously, incomplete.
So a second interpretative level is needed according to further suppositions.
This second level of information would be that of the reader who has some sort
of background knowledge which leads him to postulate that the literal
interpretation is probably not complete, which makes him look for another
interpretation which, without denying what is true in the earlier one, is more
complex than the obvious and elementary gloss of the first reader. Now, the
interpreter will attempt to identify the character alluded to by Machado as Tartarin, his connection with Koenigsberg
and his profession. To achieve these identifications he will have to make a series
of prior assumptions. The basic assumptions that he will have to make will be,
at least, the following:
1.
That Koenigsberg is a
city –and not, as its literal
translation appears to suggest, a royal mountain– specifically, a city situated in East Prussia that
was later renamed Kaliningrad.
2.
That there must be a historical character who is automatically identified with this city.
3.
That Koenigsberg’s most famous citizen is the philosopher I. Kant. The
identification of Kantian philosophy with Prussian Geist
and even with extreme Prussian militarism is demonstrated in the following
text: “On osait
ajouter que l’impératif catégorique n’était que du ‘caporalisme prussien’. Au début d’août 1914, un
jeune séminariste du Séminaire français de Rome, Yves de Joannis,
mobilisé dans l’artillerie, écrivait au Supérieur la joie qu’il éprouvait à
‘dresser son canon contre la fausse philosophie de Kant’.” (Lacroix, 1973: 5). So, Koenigsberg’s philosopher, Tartarin
in Koenigsberg, or any other similar periphrasis
is a clear allusion to Kant and they work as a description instead of the
proper name Kant in accordance with the classical philosophical
terminology of B. Russell (1905).
4.
That Kant never left Koenigsberg
in his life and, in spite of this lack of world direct knowledge, he became a
famous philosopher: “Kant blieb auf dem Boden
stehen, auf den ihn Geburt und äußere Lebensumstände gestellt hatten; aber er
hat mit der Kraft zur Selbstbeschränkung, die eine spezifische Eigentümlichkeit
seines intellektuellen und sittlichen Genies ausmacht, diesem Boden alles
abgewonnen, was er an geistigem Ertrag enthielt. Wie er schon als Knabe und
Jüngling gelernt hatte, die Pflicht des Mannes zu erfüllen, so blieb er ihr bis
zu Ende treu: und aus der Energie dieses sittlichen Willens ist die neue
theoretische Welt- und Lebensansicht der kritischen Philosophie erwachsen.” (Cassirer, 1994: 37).
5.
That the typical image of a philosopher in the act of
philosophising is precisely the one where he is holding his fist against his
cheek or forehead, as in Rodin’s masterpiece Le Penseur.
6.
That I. Kant had a philosophical system, or at least
so Machado believed, that claimed to explain “everything”.
Once all these assumptions have been
made, we have reached an acceptable level of understanding of Machado’s text. In fact we have explained everything except
the reference to Tartarin. But, at this level
of interpretation, we are still not in a position to decide, with the
assumptions we have made and the data available so far, whether the text is one
in which the philosophical work of Kant is being praised or whether, on the
contrary, it is the butt of criticism and irony.
The third level will be that in
which the reader will have to go a step further and make up his mind if Machado’s little poem is a text criticising Kant’s philosophy or praising it. To decide upon this, the
reader will have to make the necessary assumptions enabling him to explain the
reason why the poet has replaced the name Kant with the name Tartarin. To explain this substitution an elementary
and obvious reason could be adduced in the context of a poem, namely that the
poet needs to produce an eight syllable line. And Tartarín
has three syllables whereas Kant has only one. But this explanation does
not appear to suffice given that Machado could have replaced Tartarín with filósofo
(philosopher) and would still have the necessary three syllables to complete
his eight syllable line, if one allows for an elision between filósofo and en (in). And these assumptions
would basically have to be as follows:
1.
That Tartarin is the
name of the main character in the novels of the French writer, A. Daudet, Tartarin de Tarascon and Tartarin
sur les Alpes.
2.
That the character of Tartarin
is the prototypical braggart.
3.
That, by means of both an antonomasia and a
personification, the noun tartarín has become
a euphemism for ‘braggart’, ‘boaster’, or ‘pompous jerk’ in several languages, even in English. In fact, the OED
defines it as “Name of a bombastic character;
‘Tartarin of Tarascon’; created by A. Daudet; used allusively as sb. or
adj.”.
4.
That the word tartarín
is scarcely used. In fact, it is not included in the official dictionary of
Spanish (DRAE) and the OED qualifies it as “rare”. Therefore Machado
has preferred to use a euphemism, which not everybody understands, to refer and
allude to Kant as a kind of knowing wink to those of his readers who are
familiar with French literature.
5.
That, if Machado has used a euphemism, he must have
done so for a reason.
Once these assumptions have been
made, we will be in a position to postulate reasonably whether Machado’s poem is a criticism or a eulogy of Kant’s philosophy. And the key which enables us to consider
it likely that we are in the presence of a critical text is precisely the use
of the euphemism tartarín because speakers do
not usually use euphemisms to replace insulting terms, as in this case, when it
is a question of praising others, but precisely when it is a question of
insulting them. In complimentary utterances the figures of speech that are most
frequently used are metaphor and hyperbole, but not euphemism. And since it has
been established that tartarín is a euphemism
for ‘braggart’, ‘boaster’, or ‘pompous jerk’, we may assume that the assertion con el puño en la mejilla, todo lo llegó a saber (with his fist against his cheek, he came to know
everything) is not to be understood in its literal sense, but since it is a
critical text, the most reasonable interpretation of todo
lo llegó a saber (he
came to know everything) is that it is an example of Machado’s irony and what the poet intended the line to mean
was quite the opposite, that is that “he came to know
nothing” or “he discovered nothing”.
Finally, the fourth hermeneutic
level will be that where the reader tries to establish the reasons for Machado’s irony and euphemism and the antagonism towards Kant’s philosophy which they imply. Basically, Machado’s criticism of Kant’s philosophy lies
(and is caused by) in the fact that Machado rejected philosophical idealism
since idealism entails that reality is not considered as being in itself but as
long as it is established by a cognoscent subject. By
contrast, Machado thinks that reality is independent with regards to any congnoscent subject at it can be demonstrated in other
places from Proverbios y cantares itself. Machado’s antiidealist position can be documented in
other places. In this sense the first poem of Proverbs and Songs can be
cited:
[5] “El ojo que ves
no es
ojo porque tú lo veas;
es ojo porque te ve” (Machado, 1988: 626).
[5.1]
“The eye you see is not
an eye because you see it;
it is an eye because it sees you” (Our translation).
[5.2] “The eye you see is
an eye
not because you see it;
it’s an eye because it
sees you” (Machado, 1982: 177).
According
to [5], the object eye (or any other object) pre-exists and has its ontological
entity irrespective of it is represented and constituted by any cognoscent being. And, what is more, the eye I see and my
eye are mutually and reciprocally constituted as objects. These reasons are to
be found, first of all, in the philosophical influence of the vitalism of the French philosopher H. Bergson,
whose classes Machado attended at the Collège
de France during his stay in Paris in 1910. Secondly, the
influence of the perspectivism and ratiovitalism of the Spanish philosopher J. Ortega y Gasset, to whom Proverbios
y cantares happens to be dedicated. The
hackneyed theses of Bergsonian vitalism
and the perspectivism and ratiovitalism
of Ortega’s philosophy, then, will, in
the last analysis, provide the sources of the final reasons for Machado’s text and a reasonable explanation for the ironic
attack on Kant’s philosophy made by Machado
in his poem.
Conclusions
1
Allusion and euphemism are two linguistic devices in
everyday language that allow us to refer to without mention the names of the
objects we don’t (or we cannot) mention by
using the names that literally mean them.
2
Their correct understanding requires a particular
interpretative process on the part of the reader/hearer. This interpretative
process can be made according to different levels of reading/comprehension
which depend on previous knowledge, assumptions, cultural background, and so
on.
3
In literary texts these different levels of
reading/comprehension can be multiplied since literary texts are the case of
open works.
4
These two short philosophical poems by A. Machado are
a paradigmatic case of his peculiar style (at least in his book Proverbios y cantares)
where allusions, metaphors, ironies, and euphemism are the clues to interpret
Machado’s verses. Given this peculiar
style, assumptions, previous contextual knowledge, and cultural background of
Machado’s readers/hearers become
unavoidable in order to get a reasonable interpretation.
5
The interpretation of tartarín
as a euphemism for ‘boaster’ or ‘pompous jerk’ becomes the key in order to interpret whether Machado’s poem is a criticism or a praise of Kant’s philosophy, while en Koenigsberg
becomes the key for identifying Kant himself.
3. References
Allan, K. & K. Burridge, 1991. Euphemism and
Dysphemism, Language Used as Shield and Weapon. Oxford-New York:
Oxford University Press.
Cassirer, E., 1994. Kants Leben und Lehre. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche
Buchgesellschaft.
Cerezo Galán, P., 1975. Palabra en el tiempo: poesía
y filosofía en Antonio Machado. Madrid: Gredos.
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© Pedro J. Chamizo-Domínguez / Carmen M.
Bretones Callejas. Círculo de lingüística aplicada a la comunicación/ Circle of
linguistics applied to communication/ (clac) 22, mayo 2005. ISSN 1576-4737.
http://www.ucm.es/info/circulo/no22/chamizo.htm