ONTENTS1. The early beginnings2. The reconstruction of a Science and a Profession3. The directive for the 90's4. Miscellanea about the university milieu5. Informal systems of postgraduate training6. Final remarksREFERENCESThe teaching of Scientific and Applied Psychology in Spain has a long and a short existence at the same time. The difficult was done at once, the impossible took a little longer.
The first chair of Experimental Psychology was created by 1902 in Madrid, at the Faculty of Sciences in the Complutense University (Yela, 1987). It was a Ph. D. course for graduate students but did not receive a great attention for many years. The first chair holder was Prof. Jose Simarro, a well known neuro-physiologist at that time. P.I. Pavlov lectured on conditioned reflexes in Madrid by 1903. His rival for the position in the chair was S. Ramon y Cajal, who obtained several years afterwards the Nobel Prize, awarding the line of research that they have initiated together at the turn of the century. Simarro described the synapse while Ramon y Cajal explained the synapse (Albarracin, 1987). Dr. Simarro became an notorious expert in Forensic Psychology. In the International milieu he was a quiet well known person. He was the Great Master of the Spanish Freemasonry ( Ferrer-Benimeli,1987).
Applied Psychology as a new field started also very early. In 1914 it was created in Barcelona the Secretariat of Learning which became soon afterwards the Institute of Vocational Guidance in 1919. The 2nd and 6th International Congress of Applied Psychology (Psychotechnics) was hold in Barcelona in 1921 and 1930 respectively. Meanwhile, in Madrid, it was created the Institute for Vocational Guidance and Personnel Selection in 1924. In both Institutes psychological applications and personnel training were developed simultaneously.
The Spanish Civil War interrupted such a gradual and parallel growth (Montoro et alii, 1984). For instance, the 11th International Congress on Psychology was scheduled for 1936's fall in Madrid. S. Ramon y Cajal was the Chairman and E. Mira was the President. The battle of Madrid took place just in autumn. The congressmen met in Paris in 1937. The above mentioned Institutes were closed and the chair was transferred to the Faculty of Philosophy and was oriented toward a thomist orientation in Psychology. Eminent psychologists went to exile or were not allowed to teach psychology under an experimental approach (Carpintero, 1984). Scientific and applied research and practice became marginal.
Normally it is difficult to start. In Spain it was done at once and very rapidly.
The reconstruction of the Spanish Psychology evolved over four well established periods.
The first period, which extends through the 50's and 60's. It entails the renewal of the studies in Psychology after the Spanish Civil War interval. In 1944 a course on experimental psychology was introduced in the medical, philosophical and educational sciences curricula. Activities in applied psychology were slowly reinitiated in Madrid and Barcelona. It was launched also a new journal, Psicotecnia, and afterwards another one, Revista de Psicologia General y Aplicada. Courses on Psychology were also introduced at several Business Schools. The Sociedad Española de Psicología was constituted.
By 1953, the Escuela de Psicología was created in Madrid. Some years afterwards this School of Specialization was assimilated by the Complutense University. The curriculum was divided in two levels: the first year focused on general theories and models as well as basic research in Psychology. The second year emphasized their applications to Clinical, Educational and Industrial issues. A predoctoral degree in any field was a requisite to enroll as a graduate student. Similar schools for university graduates appeared in the 60's in Barcelona, Salamanca, Deusto (in this case exclusively for industrial psychologists).
The second period can be traced out through the 70's. A division of Scientific Psychology was created at the Faculty of Philosophy and Educational Sciences in the Complutense University and in the University of Barcelona. The curriculum included two years of Humanities subjects and three years where the focus was exclusively on Scientific Psychology. Soon other Universities created similar sections: Santiago, Sevilla, Granada, Tenerife, Salamanca, Valencia, Murcia, Asturias, Open University etc.
By 1977 the Complutense University created the first Faculty of Psychology. In Spain, the status of Faculty refers to the grouping of academic departments with similar knowledge bases that form a unit within the university administrative structure. It represents the highest rank in the academic system. A Faculty offers long-term courses that lead to a Degree (Licenciado) awarded upon the completion of 5 years in a discipline. The main consequence was that a new program in Psychology was build in this University that included exclusively courses on Scientific Psychology during a five year curriculum. Applied Psychology in Clinical, Educational and Industrial settings became an specific program at the postgraduate level. Only graduates (Licenciados = 5 years) in Psychology could become applied psychologists.
In December 31st 1979 the Colegio Oficial de Psicologos was enacted by a law of the Spanish Parliament and the agreement of the Spanish Crown. In Spain a Colegio Oficial organizes the whole group of a professional body of experts sharing the same academic credentials of a Faculty. In this case, the Licenciatura en Psicología. The occupational prestige of a profession initially lies in having a self-governing institution like the Colegio Oficial, which is backed up by the delegation of state powers to control the work of its members in the interest of their clients. It means that the professional title of "psychologist" is under legal control and protection. Only those persons who finish a five-years period of higher education in Psychology at the University may be accepted as practitioners and get registered as associate members. It follows that this profession is really suitable for the every day functioning of the Spanish society.
The third period corresponds to the 80's. It witnessed the creation of four new independent Faculties and Departments of Psychology in different Spanish Universities. The main Faculties involved several Departments such as General Psychology, Experimental Psychology, Individual Differences and Psychological Assessment, Developmental Psychology, Social Psychology, Physiological Psychology.
Each Faculty confers the degree of Licenciado en Psicología. The Colegio Oficial confers the title of Psicologo. In Spain, the term "practicante" (practitioner) has virtually dropped out of usage.
The 80's also have implied a redefinition of the legal and organizational structure of State Universities in Spain. The reform started by 1983 and it brought about that the previous deparments were reorganised at the national level into differentiated "areas of scientific knowledge". The main consequence was that Psychology as an academic discipline became structured after the following areas: Behavioral Sciences Methodology, Psychobiology, Psychology of Basic Processes, Developmental and Educational Psychology, Social Psychology, Personality and Psychological Assessment as well as Treatment.
These fields underlie the Department structure in each Faculty. Each department requires 12 full-time and tenured professors to exist. In Spain there are, by July 20th 1991, 881 full-time and tenured professors/lecturers and about 300 part-time or associate lectures.
Insert TABLE 1 about here
Ph.D. is a requisite to become a member of CU and PTU levels. Professors in both categories teach to 1st and 2nd cycle students in a Faculty. Professors in categories CEU and PTEU teach to 1st cycle students in a School where Psychology is currently an specific course. For instance, the School of Nurses, Social Workers, Primary School Teachers etc. In each area of Scholarship an "ad hoc" Committee of five members evaluates individual merits (mainly, publications) of each candidate to a tenured position. The Commitee evaluates afterwards a report, writen by the candidate, about the state of the art of the discipline that he or she is planning to teach. This report includes a conceptual framework, an overview of research methods and approaches, and a review of relevant literature in the discipline (2-3 languages are the norm). Finally each candidate designs the syllabus of an specific course, selects instructional strategies, includes an specific list of exercises as well as readings and produces a lesson. The report, the syllabus and the lesson are analysed and discussed by each member of the Committee. At least, three positives votes out of five are required to become a tenured professor in each category. In those few cases where the vacancy is a chair, the candidate presents also an unpublished research project, already concluded, which is analysed and discussed by each member of the Committee. Each phase of this evaluation process is made in a public session, where other professors and graduates shape the audience.
Table 1 reflects also the degree of influence and importance of each area of scholarship in the academic curriculum of a graduate. As it is often the case in several countries, Developmental Psychology has a greater influence in Higher Education Schools than in Faculties of Psychology. By the end of 1990 ten Faculties of Psychology were already constituted.
During the 80s the Colegio Oficial was structured in 16 territorial agencies and almost matched the Faculty system in the country. The consequence has been that about 150 practitioners are involved in National or Local Executive Boards. 20% of the budget remains under the direct control of the National Board while 80% is used by local boards in their annual planning system. In this way, both might be considered executive boards. The Colegio Oficial in Catalunya has an specific and stronger status since this institution has obtained also the recognition of the Catalan Parliament. By summer 1991, about 29,000 "Licenciados" and "Doctores" in Psychology are registered as full members.
The fourth period corresponds to the 90's. The Council of Universities created a task force to deal with existing differences in curricula. This task force was requested to issue a common core curriculum by fixing minimum standards. The real idea was to create a common framework of training in Psychology for the 90's. The Colegio Oficial de Psicologos appointed a non-scholar member to this "ad hoc" committee (Herná Coming back to the initial statement, it seems that the impossible took a little longer.
The new norm establishes that there is a unique title of LICENCIADO EN PSICOLOGIA with an official character and formal validity throughout the country. It might be considered a predoctoral degree in the context of international comparisons.
Each University issuing a title in Psychology will produce an "ad hoc" and standard new curriculum before 1993. The proposal of a new curriculum must be submitted to the supervision of the Council of Universities. The new curriculum leading to a suitable title in Psychology should have to accommodate forcefully the contents and the credit system mentioned in Table 2. If the deadline period has elapsed and a particular University has not referred or officially approved a new plan, the Council of Universities, after a formal dialogue with appointed representatives, will put forward a provisional plan.
Insert TABLE 2 about hereA minimum of 300 credit-hours and a maximum of 390 represent the overall academic load to obtain the predoctoral degree (normally about 5 years) in Psychology. Contents and credits of Table 2 depict about 50% of the entire range of learning experiences provided in each University. Each Faculty of Psychology is quite autonomous in setting the number of remaining credits it requires for a specialization during the second cycle and in defining specific courses during the first cycle. Each cycle involves, at least, a two-year academic period.
It seems that all Faculties will offer a large array of new courses during the second cycle. Students will make decisions about their preferences, combining compulsory and optional courses in an individualistically tailored manner.
However, the Complutense University will offer closed-specialties during the second cycle. In this case the student cannot move freely between courses and applied fields. The predoctoral degree will be the same: Licenciado en Psicologí There is always the issue of a third but optional cycle in Psychology. Two routes are available: the Ph. D. degree (emphasis is placed on Psychology as a Behavioral Science) and the Master Degree (emphasis is placed on Applied Psychology as a Behavioral Technology). All Faculties are involved in the Development of one or both types of third cycle degrees.
The Ph.D. is almost exclusively focused on scholarship. The content of such studies are under the control of an specific Department in a Faculty of Psychology. It becomes an specific curriculum for research and teaching purposes under the supervision of an scholar in the role of academic mentor of a Doctoral Research Project and Dissertation.
The Master Degree implies another specific graduate curriculum in psychological action and intervention: Anxiety and Stress, Behavioral Modification, Community Psychology, Consumer Psychology, Drug-Addicts Assessment and Treatment, Health Psychology, Human Resources Management and Personnel Psychology, Neuropsychology, Organizational Behavior, Psychoanalysis, Psychology and Law, Psychology and Traffic Safety, Sport Psychology, Vocational Guidance, etc.
Both sets of curricula are open to university graduates in Psychology almost exclusively. The debate is now focused on opening or not the third cycle to non-psychology graduates. There are institutional pressures to open the third and event the second cycle to any kind of predoctoral degree holder. Some scholars pressure also in that direction. However the Colegio Oficial and those scholars who are well known as applied researchers pressure to limit the access to an specialized training in second and third cycle curricula. Raised standards dignify everyday practice. It creates social prestige and favors professional competence and effectiveness.
Spanish Universities are institutions whose origins stretch back in several instances to the Middle Age or to the Renaissance. In some cases, for instance, Latin is still the language in use in formal ceremonies. During the 19th century Spanish Universities were reformed. Again, in 1983 a Law on the Reformation of Higher Education was enacted by the Parliament. This law also created the University Council as a coordinating, organizing, planning and advisory body of existing 38 Universities, 32 State-run and four under the responsibility of Catholic groups. Five private Universities have started by Fall 1991.
The entry requirement for Spaniards to a course of study is the certificate awarded upon succesful completion of secondary education and the completion of a one-year introductory course. A great proportion of them (70-80%) have the right of access. The only requisite is positive results in a general examination which is designed to evaluate knowledge gained.
The main consequence has been that this system provides training and higher education to graduates that will become soon afterwards expert practitioners in public or private settings rather than experienced scientists. Only 10% of each Faculty's budget might be considered research funds. There are up-dated research facilities and new research equipments but full time researchers are a minority among graduate psychologists (about 6.3%). About 55% of scholars and researchers are women (Diaz-Sanchez, 1991).
The reform undertaken by the Socialist Government during the 80s was inspired in the anglosaxon tradition. But the transition comes into conflict with political and academic interests. The interest in restricting entry into the campus by increasing examination standards and registration fees is supported by the Liberal State ideology. From the academic year 1977-78 to 1982-83 the growth was from 649,525 to 692,152 university students. Almost free access to higher education is one of the social rights supported by the Welfare State ideology. From the academic year 1983-84 to 1989-90 the number of students in Spanish Universities has grown from 744,115 to 1,067,874. The consequence is that the ratio of number of students per tenured lecturer or professor is now very high. The first period corresponds to a Liberal mandate and the second to a Socialist mandate. About 2.6% of them are foreign students.
The cours magistrale is the norm. The legal number of teaching hours per week is 8 for a tenured and full time lecturer or professor. It includes theoretical lectures and practical exercises with students. Lectures take place from October to June.
Existing libraries in each Faculty have good reference sections in Spanish, English, French, Italian, Portuguese as well as German books and journals in each field of Scientific and Applied Psychology. It represents now a real advantage as far as this is not the norm in US and several EC Universities.
The following data provide an idea of the very large number of students which have applied to a curriculum in Psychology during the 80s (Prieto, 1988). Only 1 out of 4 present practitioners got their degree before 1980. During the academic year 1984-85 the number of students in Psychology was 27,245. By 1989-90 this number was 44,110. One out of two students fail to complete their degree in Psychology. By 1990, about 8 out of 10 students in Psychology are women. Figure 1 shows that there is a direct correspondence between the increase of students in higher education and the number of students in Psychology during the period 1984-85 to 1989-90. There is not a bias of preferences among university students towards Psychology. The correlation is 0.958 and the lines on the graph are the least squares lines fitted to the actual figures in Spain. Since the available data go through several powers of 10, the use of log scale is reasonable since it improves the graphic resolution.
-------------------------- Insert Figure 1 about here --------------------------The unexpected "boom" of Scientific Psychology in Spain must be directly related to existing policies purported to improve the overall competence of young people through a higher education degree. The oucome is the advancement of learning and the transmission of knowledge-based expertise and culture. The general structure of learning and research areas shows the existence of 25 types of distinct Faculties in Universities and 32 Schools in Polytechnics and other Higher Education institutes.
The following State Universities have a Faculty of Psychology: Autonoma of Barcelona, Autonoma of Madrid, Barcelona, Complutense of Madrid, La Laguna in Tenerife Island, Salamanca, Valencia and the Open University. Private Universities sponsored by Catholic groups like Deusto in Bilbao, Comillas in Madrid and Pontificia in Salamanca also have created Faculties of Psychology. Regularly each Faculty is divided in 2-7 Departments of Psychology. The following universities have a Department of Psychology, currently in a Faculty of Humanities: Gerona, Tarragona, Granada, La Coruñ
The Colegio Oficial de Psicologos organizes every year a Summer School on Applied Psychology that normally is hold in one or several campuses throughout the country. It last one or two weeks. Practitioners become lecturers and conduct training seminars and workshops at the Campus. Under the framework of modules of 15 hours each, they lead group learning experiences with individual work exercises and a high degree of interaction within the workgroup. Each group varies in size from 15 to 30 persons, normally new graduates or senior students. Practitioners in the role of lecturers introduce their own methods and approaches to topics of actual interest in the professional life. At the Complutense University, for instance, the Summer School schedules each year an average of 60-70 workshops or seminars and about 1000 to 1200 participants are involved. This is the main Summer School and it is organized almost exclusively by the Colegio Oficial, Madrid Office.
Training seminars, lectures, debates, round tables etc. are scheduled regularly in each local office of the Colegio Oficial de Psicologos (16 throughout Spain). It shapes an informal accreditation system in the context of personal career development. The convenor has the responsibility of implementing experiential learning. Learning must be active, meaningful and relevant to "real life" agendas. This idea leads applied psychologists to become life-long learners. Once consequence is that now 25% of practitioners participate regularly in Seminars, Workshops, Congresses and Symposia. Another 25% participate from time to time. Finally there is still a 50% who rarely become engaged in such a kind of postgraduate learning activities.
Papeles del Psicologo is the official and bi-monthly journal of the Colegio. Each issue focuses on a monographic topic which must be relevant to contemporary professional practice. In this way each issue provides up-dated information about an actual subject. The Revista de Psicologia del Trabajo y de las Organizaciones is the official and quarterly journal of the Work and Organizational Psychology Division. New Journals in Clinical and Health Psychology, Psychology and Law, have already been launched recently. In this way, practitioners and senior students have regular access to up-dated psychological issues in the professional life.
During this century, 33 different journals on Psychology have been edited. About 22 of them are still published every year (Tortosa,1988) in Spanish language. Almost 50% are scientific or professional journals where the emphasis is on psychological subjects and perspectives. The remaining journals might be considered behavioral science journals where Psychologists' contributions are welcome. In a similar vein, about 400 books on different Scientific and Applied Psychology's topics are published annually in Spanish Language. One out of two are translations from foreign languages.
Graduates above 40 years of age are used to read or speak French as a second language. Younger graduates are used to read but not to speak English as a second language. It explains the small presence of Spanish psychologists in European and International Congresses and meetings where English is the main language. Only those practitioners in the field of I/O Psychology face the requisite of a good level in English.
There are, at least, 9 Societies which are focused in different areas of Scientific and Applied Psychology. Their membership is rather small, the average 400-600 associates. The senior Society is the Sociedad Españ
Psychology in Spain ressembles now a gravitational field in which Faculties of Psychology and the Colegio Oficial de Psicó
Scientific and Applied Psychology in Spain has emerged during the last decade as a certified knowledge-based discipline, resting upon an academic ground (Faculties) and as a restrictive labor market, embodying principle of state control and self-regulation (Colegio). The consequence is that it moves in the direction of a closed occupational community organized to control and negotiate its own affairs.
JOSÉ RAMÓN CORREAS GONZALEZ
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