Since the fifties, combining psychometric approaches and factor analysis, Yela and a large group of collaborators have been conducting an important research program concerning individual differences in intelligence, verbal aptitudes and psychomotor abilities. According to his view, mono- and multi-factorial solutions could be considered compatible; he postulates a general factor solution with specific abilities in accordance with what he has called the heterogenous-continuous dimensionality of human intelligence (Yela, 1987).
Information-processing components have been analysed by a wide array of authors. Each component seems to be elementary at a convenient level of analysis (Martinez-Arias & Yela, 1991). Individual differences in representational cognitive strategies in attentional and perceptual tasks, in memory dilemmas and reasoning (Juan-Espinosa & Colom, 1989), in the relation of bilingualism to intelligence (Sanchez-Lopez & Forteza, 1987), have been the subject of detailed analyses (Cf. Sanchez-Canovas, 1986). The relationship between creativity and intelligence (Fernandez-Garrido, 1980) and between social intelligence and other cognitive abilities have been also approached.
Several groups have been studying both modificability of intelligence and learning potentials (Calero & Fernandez-Ballesteros, 1993). In a more basic field important efforts are being made in the search for psychophysiological correlates of intelligence (Ortiz & Exposito, 1992).
The field of personality has received great attention in recent years. Eysenckïs model of personality has been analyzed and developed, both from correlational and experimental perspectives (Baguena & Belloch, 1985). Animal experiments have been carried out to confirm Eysenckïs predictions on extraversion and neuroticism in rats (García-Sevilla, 1984).
Also, many other correlational researches on Eysenckïs model have been carried out including the relationship between extraversion and paranoidism, (Carrillo & Pinillos, 1983), antisocial behavior, delinquency and personality (Valverde, 1985), verbal fluency and extraversion (Muñiz & Yela, 1981), extraversion and task properties as determinants of incidental recall (Bermudez et alii, 1988).
Cattell's theory of personality and motivation has also been the focus of several empirical researches. In the context of Q and T data second order factors in Spanish samples closely resemble those of U.S. samples, the primary source-trait structure, however, has been only partially confirmed (Seisdedos, 1991).
Based both on Eysenckïs and Cattellïs theories and also on the behavioral approach from Brengelman, since 1970, Pelechano (1973) has been working empirically on a theory of personality ("personality and parameters") that explains human performance in terms of interactions including not only personality and motivational dimensions but also situational factors (parameters).
Witkinïs theory linking perception and personality gave birth to several research programs dealing with "field dependence-independence" (FDI) dimension. First, a great deal of research has been conducted to establish the construct validity of several FDI measurement devices (Kirschner et alii, 1989). Also, other relevant topics have been researched such as the relationship between neuropsychological differentiation and FDI (Manning & Ferná
From the social-learning theory, in the field of self control, gratification delay and aversive stimulation tolerance, Avia & Kanfer (1980) and Blanco & Ruiz (1985) have supported the importance of distraction and self-instruction processes.
Other studies have explored several aspects of personality. For example, individual differences have been related to cognitive and biological variables in information processing by Tous (1985).
Basic studies in the field of abnormal behavior have been carried out concerning several so called mental problems. We are going to emphasize three of the most basically psychopathological syndromes: schizophrenia, depression and anxiety.
On the experimental cognitive research of schizophrenia many research teams have been working in the last ten years. This program has included experimental research concerning reaction time, perception, memory and language (Ruiz Vargas, 1987). The predictive role of attentional deficits and the effects of some drugs in schizophrenic symptoms have been studied by Vazquez et alii (1990) and by Obiols et alii 1992).
The epidemiology and prevention of depression during childhood and adolescence and the measurement of depression have been approached by Polaino & Senra, (1991). Also, psychosocial predictors of child depression such as family structure, life events, school achievement, self-esteem and ways of coping have been explored by Del Barrio (1990).
From an experimental perspective, Ruiz-Caballero & Bermudez (1992) have developed a research program concerning the relationship between depression and cognitive processes. Vazquez (1987) has been working on judgment of contingency and in the automatic cognitive processes of depressive patients.
In the field of basic research on anxiety, from the seventies, Bermudez (1983) has been working on a research program concerning trait-state anxiety. Miguel-Tobal & Cano-Vindel (1989) have developed a large program on the study of anxiety concluding in the existence of a general trait of anxiety and several situational factors accounting for its variance. Finally, Sandí
1.7 Health and Clinical Psychology
Health as well as clinical psychology have shown important developments in Spain during the last decades both in applied and research fields.
Pelechano (1980) and his group have developed community programs to treat and prevent psychological problems in children through relatives and at school. Also for natural environment, Cerezo (1991) has developed an observational procedure in order to assess family interactions as well as an intervention program in order to deal with family problems, child abuse as well as other interpersonal problems.
With the main goal of the social integration of handicapped people by means of training in specific assets, several research teams have been working (Martorell et alii, 1990). Verdugo (1989) has been working on the development, implementation and evaluation of a standarized program in order to deal with physical and mental deficiencies in this special group of subjects. Martin et alii (1990) have worked on a large research program concerning the evaluation and treatment of mentally retarded subjects.
In the field of clinical psychogerontology, Reig (1992) has explored stress and health status through ageing. Pelechano & De Miguel (1992) are involved in the assessment and training of interpersonal abilities among old people. Fernández-Ballesteros et alii (1992) have developed a large research program concerning the assessment and treatment of psychological problems in the elderly.
Other psychological and behavioral problems have been studied by different research teams. Thus, Saldaña & Rossell (1988) started working from an epidemiological perspective trying to establish habits concerning dietary behavior as well as the most important psychosocial predictors and risk factors of obesity, anorexia nervosa and bulimia. From this standpoint they have developed a prevention program for these behavioral problems and, finally, they have been working on remedial treatments of obesity.
In the contribution to the study and treatment of stuttering, Santacreu (1986), through a series of experimental studies has emphasized the predisposition of EMG responses to stress in stuttering patients and on the basis of this he has developed biofeedback procedures in the treatment of this clinical pathology.
Echeburura et alii (1991) are mainly interested in the differential efficacy of several agoraphobia treatments.
Vallejo & Labrador (1983) are working on the explanation and treatment of pain. Starting with the proposal of a psychobiological model of headache they have found empirical support concerning cognitive variables and defensive response (Labrador & Puente, 1988) and they have developed a cognitive-behavioral treatment of headache.
Concerning the more specific field of health psychology, contributions to the research on the psycho-neuro-immunitarian bases of health and illness through stress have been made by Bayés (1987) and his associates. In the field of basic research on the stress responses, Flores and Valdés (1986) are involved in the investigation of the psychobiological factors of cardiovascular desease as well as the relationships between psychophysiological responses and stress, hypertension and other health problems. Several groups are working on the identification of the psychobiological patterns of stress and psychosomatic disorders.
Concerning the study of stressful situations and copying, several research teams are working on several populations (Ribera et alii 1988), and different settings (Rodriguez-Marin, 1986). Several research groups are involved in the study of coping abilities with physical illness and the way of coping with medical/surgical consequences (Rodriguez-Marin, 1992). Thus, in the last ten years Ibañez (1988) and associates have developed a research program concerning breast cancer. They have studied several types of psychological and social variables and they have established the conditions concerning the physicianïs report about this illness. In a similar avenue of research, Rodriguez-Marin et alii (1989) are dealing with psychosocial variables related to cancer progression as well as with the patientïs ability to cope with chronic pain. Polaino and Lizasoain (1992) have developed an intensive research program concerning hospitalization of children.
Development of biofeedback procedures in dealing with several health problems have been focused on in the last twenty years. Carrobles & Godoy (1987) have developed biofeedback procedures and applied it to the treatment of several health problems from pedophilia to myopia, from neuromuscular rehabilitation to headaches (Carrobles et alii, 1981). For example, Guio et alii (1989) have initiated an innovatory research and behavioral program concerning the prevention and treatment of myopia by means of behavioral techniques.
Many other health problems have been studied from a psychological point of view (Simon, 1993) in areas such as preparation and recovery from surgery, non-organic gastrointestinal illnesses, neuromuscular control in spastic individuals, sleep disorders in older adults. Amigo et alii (1991) have developed a cognitive-behavioral treatment of essential hypertension. Roales-Nieto (1988) has been working on training in blood glucose discrimination in insuline dependent diabetes mellitus patients.
Concerning health promotion and prevention, many research teams have been investigating the development, implementation and evaluation of different prevention programs in order to deal with important health problems such as drug adiction, AIDS, and bucco-dental diseases among others. Costa and Lopez (1986) have been working on a community-based model for the development, implementation and evaluation of health promotion programs.
JOSÉ RAMÓN CORREAS GONZALEZ
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