Describing the evolution and historical development of the Social Services is a complex task since it requires carrying out both a synchronic and a diachronic analysis in each stage of development.
Making a Darwinian description of the evolution of the Social Sciences and their corresponding objects can produce the impression of a development of Social Services by descent, with variation, from parent forms through the selection of those programs best adapted to survive in the Spanish transition from an economy of scarcity to a welfare economy. The general framework which most social evolutionists use to justify this phylogenesis is the following: charity, benefits, social work, and social security, private insurances, social planning and social welfare (Casado and Guillen, 1987). It reflects also the political transition of Spain from an Authoritarian Regime to an Industrial Democracy.
Nevertheless, this perspective is far from sanctioned when we analyze the ambiguity of definitions and terminologies used to describe areas of intervention designed to remedy or alleviate certain unfavourable conditions of life in the community: social aids, labour-saving works, social promotion, social insurance, social actions, social service, social programs and plans. In order to attain a more objective and complete understanding, it would be necessary to study the diverse historical and socio-political situations. Each socio-economic system generates acquiesced types and styles of marginalization and thus creates models of social services and assistance that must ensure, at least, the survival of those individuals or groups in dire necessity.
In order to be brief, we shall only review the ideological models of intervention particular to previous stages (Las Heras & Coztajarena, 1985).
We shall point out two stages that seem to characterize the present situation after the bankruptcy of Eastern European countries: the liberal and neo-liberal options of the market (Friedman, 1980; Hayeck, 1978) and the conception of social welfare as reform (Titmuss, 1971) and as social rights (Marshall, 1981).
The liberal and neo-liberal points of view are known for their intent to drastically reduce the intervention of the State in socio-economic affairs so that the free market would be the only regulator and mediator in the relationship between capital and labour. The models of social intervention which emerge from this philosophy endeavour to confine it to marginal sectors of the population. The services are effected basically through private institutions and comply with explicit policies of social Darwinism.
The second model of social reform is the clear option of social democracy and of humanitarianism. Its main objectives are to spread social rights and bring about a better redistribution of income without producing great upheaval for the market economy: faced with the impossibility of equal income, the possibility of equal opportunity is suggested. The emphasis changes from Industrial Democracy to Industrial and Social Democracy (Conseil d'Europe, 1980).
The Spanish Constitution of 1978 establishes in Article 9/2 that public powers must promote conditions so that the equality of individuals and of the groups of which they form a part is real and effective, thus eliminating the obstacles that impede or make their participation in political, economic, cultural and social life difficult.
In the period from 1978 to 1982 there has been a slow development of the laws meant to implement these conditions postulated in our Magna Charta. There still prevails a policy directed at mitigating social problems, with services being met because of their urgency, with a lack of any adequate planning.
From 1982 to 1993, coinciding with the first, second and third legislatures of socialist party leadership,(Partido Socialista Obrero Español, PSOE) a new conceptualization of social policies was introduced, and as a consequence, a new perspective on the composition and structure of Social Services. A Ministry of Social Services was created and the Minister in charge was an Applied Psychologist.
Our Constitution guarantees the right to the autonomy of territorial nationalities that make up the State (Comunidades Autonomas, a similar system to that of "Landers" in Germany) and at the same time specifies the levels of responsibility and capability of these territorial parliaments in their government. Article 148/20 indicates that social assistance is the responsibility of each Comunidad Autonoma. For this reason each territorial parliament or government will gradually develop their corresponding Social Service laws.
The core idea is that Social Services might be understood as the operative instrument used in promoting solidarity and preventing or overcomplementing inequality in the framework of a welfare policy.
Since 1982, when the Basque Parliament passed their first law of Social Services, fifteen other territorial parliaments have legislated comparable Social Service laws.
To our minds, the power and the responsibility of each Comunidad Autonoma regarding social actions stems from the belief that very specific needs and peculiarities emerge from different social milieux and that only from services that are close at hand can they be evaluated and dealt with.
Taking as a starting point the previous line of thought and the principle of decentralization, the law that establishes new bases of Local Authorities, enacted in 1985, obliges municipal districts of more than 20.000 inhabitants to provide facilities and services to help people who have particular problems and needs.
This legislative framework that we have just described defines a public system of Social Services which is noticeably different from the systems of Social Services in other countries based on private organizations and non-governmental organizations financed by churches and international funds or foundations. Although these kind of social-minded associations and agencies exist in Spain (for instance, Caritas, Red Cross and so on) and receive subsidies from the State, their work is complementary to the public Social Services. It is therefore possible to say that we find ourselves within a model based on social reforms and the enlargement of civil and social rights.
The legislation allots power and responsibility to each Comunidad Autonoma and their administration to local authorities with the basic idea of getting Social Services closer to the citizens. However, we believe that a Law of Social Services enacted by the Spanish Parliament would be necessary as a frame of reference to guarantee a harmonious development of these Social Services and minimum basic services of a general sort for all Spanish citizens.
Social Services at the territorial level are divided into the following sections: Specific Services, addressed to concrete groups like women, infants, drug addicts, marginal homeless, disabled, retirees and so on. General Services, addressed to the entire population.
The evolution of psychology in the area of specific services has not yet had a parallel response in general services until just very recently.
This division --that at first sight may appear to be arbitrary-- has taken shape in each and every one of the laws already developed regarding this matter.
Historically, Social Services in Spain responded to the necessity of compensating the deficits in specific sectors of the population. The expansion of these services has been of great importance and as, in any case, a bridge towards new horizons (Garcia, 1988).
The evaluation of the deficits and necessities of those groups, as well as intervention within them was made easier by accessibility and proximity to care. The roles of the practitioners quickly became clear and the theoretical and practical contributions of applied psychologists were added to this growing experience (Ibañez, 1985; Torregrosa, 1985).
The individualized perspective of intervention, characteristic of the clinical model, had to be reviewed in favour of group techniques which were quite a bit more integrating. These were then complemented by a systemic-structural viewpoint that permitted pondering a basic model of general intervention whose essential characteristics are those referring to primary, secondary and third-stage prevention. The number of psychologists in these specialized services has greatly increased. We can find an example of the magnitude and importance of this expansion in the area of Social Services provided by the Local Authority of Madrid where from the non-existence of these professionals in 1987 their number increased to 35 in 1990. The greater percentage was situated in the "CAD-system" (Care Centres for Drug Addiction), where they took on the task of leading innovative proposals of community intervention.
The fundamental characteristics of the General Social Services refer to a model in which psycho-social assessments and diagnosis prevail. There are prevention programs based on the peculiarities of the community which are apt to motivate citizens to participate in the management, problem-solving and decision-making that affect them. Without a doubt, it is within this model that the intervention paradigms of Community Psychology turn out to be most useful.
The contribution of applied psychologists occurs in the context of a multi-disciplinary staff. They are involved in the assessment of necessities, the design of programs, the development of techniques and instruments with work-groups and the evaluation of existing programs. Their contribution is considered quite influential and valuable in what concerns the attainment of specific goals and achievements.
Since 1988, the General Management of the Social Action Committee (of the Ministry of Social Affairs) has been promoting the Concerted Plan of Basic Care, which responds to the characteristics of General Social Services. This is a plan that must be "concerted" at regular intervals because its implementation and financing have to be negotiated with the Government of each Comunidad Autonoma.
Obtaining general assent of each one of the administrative levels sometimes means that processes and progress are slow, even though on the other hand, it makes the three parts responsible and more intensely involved. The program ponders the existence of four general services for the entire population: Information and orientation, Help in the home, Alternative housing, Prevention and social insertion.
Any of these services is sufficiently complex in itself so as to deserve an inter-disciplinary approach that must be guaranteed by means of highly qualified teams. It requires an integrated work-group structure of suitably planned interventions as a consequence of cohesiveness and collaboration.
Summarizing, psychological intervention in Social Services is in a period of expansion which began in the Specialized Social Services and has continued over the last few years within the General Social Services. This expansion is based on the principles which are outlined in the legislation which is now in force.
JOSÉ RAMÓN CORREAS GONZALEZ
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