TS PLT 1
POST-COMMUNISM AND POLITICAL PSYCHOLOGY
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PERCEIVED RISK AND MEDIA RISK REPORTS: A STUDY OF COMMUNIST AND POST-COMMUNIST ROMANIA AND BULGARIA.
SJÖBERG, L.; Center for Risk Research - Stockholm School of Economics, Stockholm, Sweden.
Perceived risk has been found to be related to media contents. Media in communist countries were controlled by rigid rules which precluded the extensive coverage of risks and accident which are typical of media in Western countries. Also, the public's perceived level of risk was probably typically small, and risks in foreign countries were more salient than domestic risks. In post-communist countries media function very differently and openly, and many real risks are widely discussed (environmental, social, economic and political risks). It is therefore expected that perceived risk has reached or exceeded the levels of Western countries. This paper reports on media contents with regard to risks in communist and postcommunist Romania and Bulgaria, as well as data on perceived level of risk which is compared to results from many other countries, which have used the same risks and rating procedures. Detailed data on selected groups from Sweden, Brazil, Romania and Bulgaria are discussed.
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PLATONIC MODEL OF INTELLIGENCE: AN IDEALIST CRITIQUE TO MATERIALISM.
YUN, Hyun Sub; Department of Psychology, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Korea.
It is ture that Marx and Engel asserted that human intellectual abilities are equal from the birth, but only cultural distributions make individuals be different in their intellectual abilities. And bourdieu, following Marx and engel, hypothesizes that individual differrences in intelligence are duue to unjust distributions of cultural capitas. This is cultural relativity hypothesis in intelligence. This study has confirmed a hypothesis that the cultural concepts of intelligence we cherish are similar across the two socio-economic groups, i.e., the college population and the physical labourer population. An identical LISREL model was constructed; the model has four linear theoretical constructs such as "the Self, the Image of Intelligent Child, the Development of Intelligence, and the Nature of intelligence". It is a Platonic model which delineates the stream of thoughts from the particular, the Self, to the general, the Nature of Intelligence. The GFI was .916 for the college group, and .851 for the physical labourer group. the GFI for the physical labourer group was below than .90, but can be judged to be a satisfactory level.
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PSYCHO-POLITICAL DILEMMA OF FORMER YUGOSLAVIA: EFFECTIVE INTERVENTION OR TERTIARY TRAUMATIZATION.
KOS, Ivan; International Psychotherapy Associates, New York, USA.
The present international arena is increasingly characterized by intensified vlolence and nationalism. The former Yugoslavia, with its multi-cultural diversities, is the best illustration of such a complex situation where numerous international groups intervened by excluding unitary, coordinated and long-term efforts.
Several questions are being raised: Is the single, regional analysis and resulting assistance sufficient for understanding the enormous complexity of the entire conflict?. Can any intervention be called effective without a full measure of cultural sensitivity, profound global understanding and knowledge of the present conflict within the former Yugoslavia?. Is the repetition of numerous humanitarian efforts creating a new traumatization within and between the regions of former Yugoslavia?. Is the nature of the conflict regulating such uncoordinated efforts or is disunited international intervention intensifying the conflict even more?.
The examination of the responses is an attempt to demarcate international psycho-political interventions, thus clarifying effective intervention from tertiary traumatization.
Understanding the conflict occurring between and within the regions of the former Yugoslavia can be helpful in perceiving any other conflict situation appearing on the international level.
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INVESTIGATION OF CHANGES IN THE PSYCHOLOGICAL MODELS OF THOSE WHO SURVIVE IN THE POST-COMMUNIST SOCIETY.
BONDAROVSKAYA, V. M.; VOSIANOVA, H. A. and NIKONOVA, I. Y.; International Hunanitarian Clinic for the Rehabilitation of the Survivors of the Chernobyl Disaster, Kiev, Ukraine.
Obgective of the current work is to investigate the transformations in psychological models, behaviour style, stress stability of those who was formed in the time of communist regime and are forced to adapt to the uncertaint and crisis situation of movement to the market economy. Special attention was given to the analysis of the stressogenicity of socio-economical and ecological environment influence into the inner human world.
Methods. It was used the battery of psychological methods for the investigation of the following psychological models and person characteristics: stressogenicity, selfestimation, conflict expressness degree and models of behaviour in the conflict situations, anxiety. In particular it was used Luscher Test modification (according to L. N. Sobchik), Rosenzweig P-F-Study, diagnostic method of individual behaviour in the conflict situations ("Business Situations" test).
It was conducted the comparison of the overage meaning of psychological parameters characteristic to the people of the former Soviet Union with the meanings of the same parameters of early 80th.
Sabjects were 66 office employees living in the capital of Ukraine Kiev at the age of 19-46, 11 male and 55 female.
Results. Obtained results have shown the essential changes in psychological models of posttotalitarian society survivor. In particular it was fixed in following: the increase of anxious levels, demands, that individual makes of sorrounding people, self-defence fixing; lowering of stress stability levels, of critical attitude towards himself in the situation of conflict, of trust in people as a whole and in his surrounding in particular, lowing of behaviour tolerance. At that time the level of business activity have increased.
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THE INFLUENCE OF COMMUNISM ON THE ETHICS, PSYCHOLOGY AND CULTURE OF THE PEOPLE OF EASTERN EUROPE
BONDAROVSKAYA, Valentina M., Ukraine.
WEINHOLD, Janae B., USA.
Research presented in this paper willshow how Communism's totalitarian system impacted the ethics, psychological model and culture inways tat are only now beginning to beknown. People living in this area have been through a series of political changes which have shattered not onlyth social structures in place.
New psychological models are emerging as a result of these changes. The presenters' paper will discuss the practical psychological methods they are using in their research at their rehabilitation center in Kiev, Ukraine, to support the development of these new models. This research regarding the emergemce of new psychological models in people of Eastern Europe will be contexted in a framework of developmental psychology.
TS PLT 2
PSYCHOLOGICAL OUTCOMES OF POLITICAL CONFLICTS
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THE STATE OF MENTAL HEALTH IN THE WEST-BANK AND GAZA DEVELOPMENT, SOCIAL DIRECTION, INTERACTION WITH NEEDS NECESSIATED BY RECENT EVENTS.
RASMIYAH, Hanoun; AN-NAJAH N. University, Israel.
SAMEER, Mahmoud; UNIVERSITY NABLUS VIA, Israel.
Prior to the British mandate of Palestine in 1917, there were no facilities formental health care in the Holyland. Only traditional ways were practised in Palestine up until the time of the British, when European style of mental health care was introduced to an increasingly urbanized population. Traditionally, those with mental problems would be treated by a religious leader, on the grounds that their bodies were possessed by evil spirits. The local sheikh would read from the Quran sometimes beating the patient to exercise the spirit and prescribe herbal medications and some sentences from the Quran for the mentally retarted patient to repeat. There is still, nowadays, an increasing reliance on traditional methods and medicines.
This paper endeavours to survey the state of mental health and its slow development in the Occupied Territories before 1967 and after. It will shed light on the state of mental health patients, implications for family, health facilities and society.
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THE SONS OF THE VIOLENCE: SELFCONCEPT AND PERSONALITY TRAITS IN ORPHAN CHILDREN BY THE POLITIC VIOLENCE WHO LIVE IN HOSPITAL FOR ORPHANS COMPARATED WITH CHILDREN WHO LIVE IN THEIR HOME
BULNES BEDON, Mario; Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Perú.
This is a descriptive-comparative study about the self-concept levels and personality traits, of those children who become orphans by the politic violence, for that reason they must live in hospital for orphans of Huancayo and Ayacucho, these cities are ubicate in the called "Nacional Emergency Zones"; these children were compared with another children who live with their families in their homes in the same cities. We work with an intentional sample of 28 children of the hospital for orphans "El Rosario" of Huancayo City, and 58 children of the Hospital of orphands "Juan A. Vivanco Amorin" of Ayacucho City. By the other side, the contract group was conformed for 28 children of "San Juan Bosco" school of Huancayo City. The total sample was comformed by 192 children of both sexs, with ages between 8 and 13 years old.
They evaluated with the Piers Harris Scale and Eyseck EPI-A. The results indicate that the orphans children have alow self concept, emotional inestability, anxiety, timidity, diffidence, low social relations, agresivity and low fustration tolerance, compared with children who live in their homes.
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ANXIETY AND ITS INFLUENCE ON THE POLITICAL VIEWS OF PALESTINIAN YOUNGSTERS.
HANOUN, Rasmiyah Sameer, An-Najah N. University, Israel.
This paper investigated anxiety among the Palestinian children in the West Bank. Under the Israeli occupation and as a result of the occupation ruthless and repressive policy. In comparison studies that have shown that a very small percentage of people develop fear or psychic disturbances as a result of passive or active participation in violent events, it was found in this study that Palestinian children have developed in themselves a certain psychic immunity that made it possible to countinue normal daily life a healthy regularity. They functioned better psychologically than before in terms of social achievement and confiedence. Their study was the only problematic issue in their life.
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PSYCHOSOCIAL STUDY OF THE DISPLACED BY THE POLITIC VIOLENCE.
PONCE DÍAZ, Carlos; RIVEROS, Marcelino; SÁNCHEZ, Sonia and COLLANTES G., Zully; Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Peru.
This study have been realized in displaced groups by the politic violence, that indicate us -in a general way - that there 200 thousands persons who have left their homes in the emergency zones, and they have gone to another cities of Perú like: Lima, Arequipa, Huancayo, Ica, respectively.
Entere comunities have left their lands' leaving "ghost towns" in the South of the Andes; there are some data that indicate that more than 50% of the displaced persons are under 18 years old and, they have high levels of malnutrition, several disorders and psychological traumas so as they live in extremes conditions for the OMS (1992). The Peruvian Government: not always know the number of displaced and they are considered for the national security forces and to the subversion like a potencial source of support or opposition; inclusively the international organlzations don't recognize them, except some one like "Cruz Roja". There is no one convention which protect them, so these persons are more vulnerable to the persecution and extreme privation, than those who can go out of the country and are consodered like refugee. We began our work with two testimonios, which reflect the reality of those who have been displaced by the politic violence, we continue our analysis of the definition and characteristics of the displacement, and make a short summary of the tradition of the migration -by socioeconomie reasons- from the Andes to the Capital, the apparition of the politic violence and the interior displacement, and the out law subversive group Sendero Luminoso; the answer of the security forces, the three moments of the displacement divided for a short time; the first moment between 1983-1986; the second one between 1987-1991; and the third time between 1992 and 1993; we must aggregate: the cuantitative dimension of the reception zones of displaced (Lima and other cities); the problems that they have, the situation of the displaced children and the organizations that protect them; we finish this work with a psychosocial profile of the displaced, some conclusion and an alternative proposition.
TS PLT 3
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION AND POLITICAL BEHAVIOR
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SHOP STEWARDS' PARTICIPATION IN THE UNION.
NANDRAM, S. S. and KLANDERMANS, P. G.; Department of Social Psychology, Free University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
This paper intends to provide a psychological understanding of the process of union participation. We will focus specifically on the predictors of shop stewards' participation in the union, because this has received little attention. Most research on union participation concerned ordinary members' participation. Some researchers have proposed psychological models (Klandermans 1983, Barling et. al. 1992) of union participation. The model of willingness to participate (Klandermans 1983) emphasized the rational approach. Indeed studies shows that perceived union instrumentality is an important predictor (Anderson 1979, McShane 1986, Fullagar & Barling 1989, Kolchin & Hyclak 1984). An attitudinal variable that turned out to considerable importance for an understanding of union participation is union commitment (Gordon et. al. 1980, Fullagar & Barling 1986, Fields et. al. 1987). Union commitment (Barling et. al. 1992) not only consists of instrumental aspects, but encompasses affective aspects as well. Therefore a model that include union commitment means a considerable improvement over Klandermans' model. Friedman & Harvey (1986) observe that the dimensions of commitment are consistent with Fishbein & Ajzen's theory of reasoned action (TRA) (1975, 1980). The paper presents a model for stewards' participation in the union based on TRA. According to our model their are three central variables; attitude, subjective norm and the loyalty dimension of union commitment. For this research data were collected by telephone from 203 union stewards and 262 ordinary members of two Dutch Trade Unions.
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A COMPARISION OF POLITICAL MORAL BEHAVIORS BETWEEN CONTEMPORARY THAI POLITICIANS AND VOTERS.
SIRIVUNNABOOD, Puntip; Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.
The purposes of this research were: (1) to survey existing political moral behaviors of Thai politicians and voters; (2) to compare political moral behaviors between Thai politicians and voters according to occupation, residential area and experiences in politics (only in group of politicians).
Data were collected from 100 politicians and 600 voters of five different residential areas: Bangkok Metropolis; Northern; Southern; Northeastern and the Central regions. The research instruments were a questionair of biographical data and the political moral beheavior scale which were constructed by the researcher. The political moral behavior scale was composed of 5 moral behavior criteria in 4 political behavior dimensions. Then, there are 20 political moral behaviors in both position and negative items. The 5 moral behavior criteria. were honesty; responsibility, disciplinary; devote to society and fairness. The 4 political behavior dimensions were voting; politicians' duty; parliamentary meeting; and use of power in politics.
The major finding were as follow:
1. There were significant differences in political moral behaviors between Thai politicians and Thai voters in most behaviors.
2. There was no significant differences among politicians with different experiences in politic.
3. There were significant differences in some political moral behaviors according to occupation and residential area in both groups.
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IDEOLOGIES POLITIQUES ET (DIS)QUALIFICATION DE LA SOURCE D'UN MESSAGE.
GAFFIÉ, Bernard; MARCHAND, Pascal and CASSSAGNE, Jean-Michel; ER 15 CNRS -Université Toulouse Le Mirail, Toulouse, France.
Le débat polémique se traduit par un discrédit de l'argumentaire adverse ou par une disqualification de sa source. Cette dernière peut s'opérer par essentialisation (psychologisation ou sociologisation).
Nous montrons que les équipements défensifs varient en fonction des affinités idéologiques: la référence à une idéologie libérale incline vers une grille de lecture (qualifiante/disqualifiante) des faits sociaux de type psychologico-individuelle, tandis que l'orientation vers une idéologie inspirée du marxisme privilégie une lecture plus socio-économique.
100 étudiants répartis en 2 groupes politiquement contrastés (Gauche/Droite) décrivent 4 groupes politiques. Les sujets de Gauche choisissent plus de descripteurs sociologiques et ceux de Droite davantage de descripteurs psychologiques. C'est, principalement, lorsque les groupes à évaluer sont "ambigus", et qu'il n'existe pas, dans le champ, de différenciation catégorielle univoque que ces lectures conventionnalisées sont activées pour (dis)qualifier une source.
Afin d'étayer l'hypothèse d'une liaison entre le positionnement idéologico-politique et un mode d'appréhension habituel d'autrui, on impose aux sujets des dimensions descriptives soit psychologisantes soit sociologisantes. La mesure de la satisfaction/perturbation éprouvée par les sujets à utiliser une grille de lecture conforme ou contraire à l'équipement défensif correspondant à leur sensibilité idéologique permet de s'assurer du lien supposé.
Ainsi, pour espérer disqualifier le discours d'un autre, un acteur du débat politique doit intégrer à sa stratégie une connaissance des positions idéologiques de la "population-cible".
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A NALYSE DE LA PAROLE POLITIQUE: ROLE DE L'ENGAGEMENT SUR LES STRATEGIES ENONCIATIVES.
MARCHAND, Pascal; ER CNRS 15 - Université de Toulouse III, Toulouse, France.
Il a été montré que les caractéristiques du discours politique varient peu selon le parti d'appartenance des orateurs, mais sont sujets à de nettes variations en fonction du contexte (Ghiglione, 1989). La question sousjacente à l'étude présente est de savoir si les caractéristiques du discours politique varient en fonction du statut de l'orateur, et plus précisément de son niveau d'engagement dans le parti. La méthodologie privilégiée ici repose sur le recueil d'entretiens auprès de 80 sujets sympathisants, adhérents, militants et élus du Parti Socialiste de la Haute Garonne (France), qui sont analysés sous deux angles complémentaires: l'analyse statistique des données textuelles (analyse factorielle lexicale), et l'analyse des stratégies énonciatives (catégorisations logico-syntaxiques des vocables). Les résultats indiquent une hiérarchisation des discours des sujets plus ou moins engagés (à propos de leur parti, de leur leader et de leur adversaire) sur une double dimension personnelle/sociale et affective/référentielle, et permettent d'établir la typologie suivante: discours personnel-affectif (sympathisants), personnel-axiologique (adhérents), impersonnel-conceptuel (militants), impersonnel-praxéologique (élus).
Une telle analyse du discours, associant des aspects paradigmatiques (distribution des vocables) et syntagmatiques (modalisation stratégique du discours) permet de mettre en évidence les rapports antagonistes qu'entretiennent l'engagement psychosocial (comportemental et calculatif) et l'engagement discursif (référencialisation, opacification, déictisation, modalisation).
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FROM THE AUTHENTICATION OF THE LEADER TO THE CREATIVE FUNCTION OF POLITICS.
CECCONI, Cristina; A.I.O., Italia.
Falsifying motivations in the choice of the profession and of the role, assumed in the projection of complex limits, abandons the politician (and also the journalist) to the mercy of the mass' s complex subsidiary projections. The result is the stereotyped fixation, that may be met in legislative solutions and also in informations diffused by the mass media. (An exemple: the italian "Tangentopoli").
In both these cases, the possibility of singling out the credible solution for the individual and society in the system/personality relationship remains inhibited. The routhe to autentication is permitted bv OntoPsychology.
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NEW RACISM, SELF-ESTEEM AND GROUP EVALUATIONS AMONG MINORITY AND MAJORITY YOUTH IN THE NETHERLANDS.
VERKUYTEN, Maykel; Utrecht University, The Netherlands.
MASSON, Kees; Erasmus University, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
Traditional racist opinions about the biological superiority of one's race have been largely replaced with the idea that minority cultures are inferior and that different cultures are incompatible. Cultural differences are assumed to lead inevitably to conflicts making segregation the prefered option. This "new racism" is used as a main argument against immigration in many European countries. The present study investigates "new racism" among majority and minority youth (13-17 years of age) in the Netherlands. First, the relationship between self-esteem and "new racism" is investigated in order to explore the importance of personality factors. Second, the role of (reported) interethnic contact for "new racist" views is studied. Third, the relationship between "new racism" and ingroup evaluation as well as group preferences is studied. In general, the results show different patterns of associations for the Dutch youth compared to ethnic minority youth. For instance, among the ethnic Dutch "new racism" is negatively associated with self-esteem while among minority youth a positive association between these measures is found. The results will be discussed in terms of implications for schools.
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THE IMPORTANCE OF CONFLICT FOR GROUP IDENTITY.
WORCHEL, Stephen and COUTANT, Dawna; Texas A.m University, Texas, USA.
Conflict is generally viewed as a negative event in human relations, one that is destructive and must be "resolved". The present paper examines intragroup and intergroup conflict as it relates to group identity and performance over the life of a group. The research suggests that intergroup conflict is important for groups to establish their identity and independence. Because of this function intergroup conflict will be sought by groups during the early stages of group formation, but it will be avoided during the latter stages when groups focus on performance and individual freedom. This position suggests that the resolution of intergroup conflict will be resisted by newly forming groups. Intragroup conflict, on the other hand, interferes with group cohesion and conflict, but may facilitate performance and the establishment of individual identity within groups. Therefore, intragroup conflict will be avoided, punished, and/or quickly resolved by groups during the early formation stages, but tolerated and/or encouraged during later periods when performance and individual identity occupy the group's attention. Conflict, then, will have either a positive or negative influence depending on the timing of conflict and its nature (intragroup or intergroup). The research is presented in the framework of a model of group development that examines groups over an extended period of time.
TS PLT 4
PSYCHOLOGY AND POLITICAL ORIENTATION
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POLITICAL BRAINWASHING AND HOW TO RESIST IT.
RODRIGUEZ-CARBALLEIRA, Álvaro; Dep. Psicología Social, Universidad de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
The persuasion with coercive ingredients, more know as brainwashing, is supported in the use of force and pressure, either phychical, or moral, or especially psychical (threat, fear, moral pressure, information control, lie, deception, and others psychologycal wais of humiliation and punishment) for the success of its plan, either honest or villainous. Historically, alliance between political and religious power provided us with numerous samples where coercive persuasion was used for individual indoctrination and controI. Others samples are found at political purges, thought reform programs, prisoner's conversion, psychological war, and in radical and close groups behaviour, as terrorists and cults. Mass media, advertising, marketing..., combined with new technologies, are a set of good tools to apply some sort of brainwashing now. Education on democratic principles, fortifying self defense, and knowledge of persuasion and influence strategies, are key points for preventive action. 0ther important strategies for resistance are: to develop critical skills and resistant emotional states; to make up own convictions firmly; to defend own autonomy and independence, as well as information and expression liberties; and to demand clearness and transparency on social interaction.
TS PLT (4) 2
ATTITUDES CONCERNING SINDICALISM AND MOTIVES FOR AFFILIATION. A PILOT STUDY.
TOLEDO, Francisco; ALONSO, Francisco; SELLES, Pilar and MARTÍNEZ, Tomás; Universidad de Valencia, Valencia, Spain.
It seems especially relevant to know the image which sindicated and nonsindicated workers have of sindicalism as a social movement, as well as of sindicates as organizations. This knowledge not only permits us to get an overview of the general image sindicates give, but also pemits us to design intervention strategies to better their efficacy, adequating it to the needs which actually exist.
The great social changes occured in the past ten years have caused the dissapearence of seemingly deep rooted values, at the same time bringing forth other values which we ignore at this moment.
This paper centers on determining the reasons for affiliation, and the way workers participate in, are interested about, or critizice, sindicates. It is also especially important to know how they consider strikes, political parties, the local representative of the sindicate and the negotiations which the sindicate endeavors.
We constructed an interview, consisting in 50 items, which posed questions refering to different prefferencial and motivational aspects of sindical organizations. The interview was passed to a total sample of 600 sindicated and non-sindicated workers, belonging to diverse working strata within R.E.N.F.E. (National Railroads).
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BASIC PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS AND SOCIOPOLITICAL ORIENTATION OF CONSERVATE PROGRESSIVE ATTITUDES IN UNIVERSITY STUDENTS OF THE CITY LIMA-PERÚ.
SÁNCHEZ CARLESSI, Huho and DELGADO BUTLER, Oscar; Universidad Ricardo Palma and Ministerio de Defensa, Peru.
This is a descriptive correlated study made from a sample of 304 university students of the city of Lima-Peru.
The objetive of this study is to identify the basic personality dimensions (using the approach of H. J. Eysenck) and the sociopolitical orientation of conservate progressive attitudes (following the positions G. D. Wilson). As well as to establish the correlations between both of them.
The Eysenck studies from the psycosocial perspective and specially the ones carried out by Wilson and co. let us identify the social attitudes oriented to the conservate radical dimension, the same one that has later radical been reoriented to the conservative-progresse dimensions.
The importance of this study from the theoretical point of view is to determine the findings in a concrete context, to subsequent transculturals studies. From the practical point of view this study has served to adapt and validate within that population two instruments: the EPQ-R (Eysenck and Barret, 85) and the Scale C adapted and revised by D. D. Wilson.
Related to some findings, it is possible to see the tendency to the extroversion, in respect to the stability-neuroticism dimension.
The average score is within what is espected, with a little tendency to the emotional instability of the psicoticism dimension.
The conservate-progressive's attitudes are placed in the intermediate score. Related to the correlations between personality dimensions and conservate-progressive attitudes the higher and more significaret correlations are in the psicoticism scale and sincerity. The students with higher percetnation in this Psicoticism have less puntuation in conservatism.
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LEADERSHIP: WESTERN IDEOLOGIES VS. SOUTH AFRICAN REALITIES.
VAN BREDA, R; Vista University, South Africa.
The Apartheid Policy in South Africa for the past 42 years has left a trial of social problems in the country, such as poverty, low level of education, unemployment etc. Another issue is that (mainly white) psychologists excluded the majority of the people - the black population - from their studies (Charoux, 1986). A direct result of this is the emerging of a generation of black leaders in the New South Africa about whom little knowledge exists. In this presentation an overview of existing Western Models of leadership as well as current African cultural perspectives will be presented. Inconsistencies and similarities about these paradigms will be presented. A conceptual model will serve as a frame to evaluate leadership within the South African context. To compliment the above mentioned perspective, qualitative data gleaned from interviews with studentleaders from a local black university will be incorporated in the presentation. The methodological point of departure is that of an in-depth rather than horisontal focus. Due to the cross-cultural nature of this presentation a qualitatve method is favoured to that of a quantitave one (McCraken, 1988). The Western models of leadership does not only have implication for leaders in South Africa being culturally different, but also for the followers taking into account that only 34% has higher secondary education. Traditional roles are followed and regressed to in times of uncertainty and insecurity (Mjoli, 1987; Watts, 1988). Knowledge of leadershipstyle, expectations of the people and the leaders is vital in understanding the political process of change in SA and in reduction of violence in the country.