Political Psychology

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PEACE, ETHNICITY AND SOCIAL CONSCIENCE: THE CONTRIBUTION OF PSYCHOLOGY TO A PEACEFUL WORLD.

Convener: FRYDENBERG, Erica; University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.

This symposium examines current issues of social concern in five areas of the globe. The issue dealt with in particular I communities impact upon the socio-political context beyond the community under investigation. The first paper from Columbia addresses the issue of peace in the developing world (or third world) where there are many conflicts, wars and human needs to be satisfied. Two papers address the problem of right wing extremism in Germany commencing with an examination of the social constructions of xenophobia and followed by a study which reports on the relationship between vandalism and racism amongst youth in East and West Berlin. In communities such as Australia the level of young people's concern with social issues is examined as is the question of how young people cope with these concerns. In Northern Ireland a study reports on parental attitudes to mixed schooling and how parental attitudes fail to be matched by social action. Finally, the ways in which Swedish conscientious objectors argue their case is presented. What these papers show is that if peace is more than the absence of war, then our communities have some distance to go towards achieving a peaceful world. In this process psychology can make a contribution.

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PEACE AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGY.

ARDILA, Ruben; University of Colombia, Bogota, Colombia.

The developing world (or Third World) is the area with more conflicts, wars and needs to be satisfied. The paper analyzes the impact of this situation on the problems related to peace. It is indicated that psychology can contribute mainly in seven areas: (1) better use of human resources, (2) achievement motivation, (3) education, (4) poverty, (5) health and behaviour, (6) early learning, and (7) the third age, without a better quality of life in the Third World, will be impossible to have long-lasting peace.

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SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONS ABOUT XENOPHOBIA AND RIGHT-WING EXTREMISM IN GERMANY.

FRINDTE, Wolfgang; University of Jena, Jena, Germany.

We understand the extreme-right movement in Gemany as a socially constructed phenomenon that reproduces itself in diverse social con-munities. It manifests itself in the following aspects: a. in "ideologies of inequality" which express themselves in the opinion that people are generally unequal and that oneself is a representative of the "better" part of mankind;

b. in "ideologies of violence" associated with high acceptance of violence and preparedness to violent activities.

In our social constructivistic approach we try to investigate four system-specific levels of social constructions about right-wing extremism (a. the field of opportunities, b. the field of meaning, c. the interaction field, d. the individual sense-field).

In a hypothesis-generating study we questioned 2500 adolescents in Germany. Results of the factor-, cluster-and discrimination-analyses will be presented in the paper. They enable us to advance hypotheses about the various facets and socio-psychological causes of the new right-wing extremism in Germany.

With the content-analysed evaluation of narrative interviews (n=50) that will be taken in the empirical main phase, process-models of the individual and group-specific development of right-wing extremism shall be designed and related to the theoretical conception mentioned above.

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XENOPHOBIA AND NEO-NAZI ATTITUDES AMONG EAST AND WEST BERLIN YOUTH: AN EXPLANATORY APPROACH.

BOEHNKE, Klaus; University of Technology Chemnitz-Zwickau, Chemnitz, Germany.

CLASSEN, Gabriele and MERKENS, H.; Free University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany.

HAGAN, John; University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.

The paper explores connections between conventional delinquent involvements in school vandalism/violence and xenophobia/neonazi attitudes among East and West Berlin youth. These forms of delinquency and political extremism covary among East and West Berlin youth, although East Berlin youth are more likely to express xenophobia, whereas West Berlin youth are more likely to engage in school vandalism and violence. Parallel explanations are developed of delinquency and political extremism, focusing on patterns of age, gender, school achievement, parental control, anomic aspirations, and dritt. The general explanation we develop, successfully accounts for delinquency and political extremism in East and West Berlin, as well as diiferences between the two sections of the city. However, some further findings of interest distlnguish the two setlings, for example, differences in parental control, which we conceptualize in terms of social capital, play a distinct role in suppressing what otherwise would be even stronger expressions of political extremism among East Berlin youth. The data analyzed were gathered from a multi-wave study conducted with 489 students who were in the seventh and ninth grades in 1991 and in the eight and tenth grades in 1992 in 16 public schools of East and West Berlin.

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CONCERN WITH SOCIAL ISSUES AND WHAT IS DONE ABOUT THEM.

FRYDENBERG, Erica and LEWIS, Ramon; University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia.

This paper reports on the level of concern amongst young people in the Australian context with four identified social issues, namely, pollution, discrimination, global war and community violence. It also examines what they do to cope. It was found that the majority of secondary students are, concerned with each of the four identified social issues. However, community violence is most frequently ranked as the most dominant of these concerns. Females are generally more concerned with each of the issues than are males. However, when it comes to community violence a complex pattern of age-related behaviour occurs. Students described their coping actions as well as responding to the 80-item Adolescent Coping Scale, a self-report instrument developed in the Australian context. When it comes to coping with social concerns there appear to be a number of strategies used by adolescents which varies according to the problem. However in general there appears to be a hierarchy of coping strategies in which a combination of relaxation, physical, recreation and working hard to solve the problem are I uppermost.

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PUBLIC ATTITUDES TOWARDS MIXED ETHNIC SCHOOLING IN NORTHERN IRELAND: SOCIAL CONSCIENCE WITHOUT SOCIAL ACTION.

CAIRNS, Ed; University of Ulster, Ireland.

For many years the development of mixed ethnic (Catholic/Protestant) schools has been seen by commentators from various disciplines as a positive contribution to peace in Northern Ireland. Further, over the last twenty-years public attitude surveys have suggested that there is a large measure of support in the community for such a developmrnt. As the result of the efforts of a delicated band of activsts a small integrated education sector has now begun to develop allowing parents in Northern Ireland for the first time to exercise the options of choosing mixed ethnic education for their children.

Recently, however, more specific research, targetted at such parents has begun to suggest that the majority are in fact not willing to actually act on this idea by sending their children to an integrated school. The results of three such pieces of research will be discussed and used to illustrate the fact that having a social conscience about peace is not necessarily a stimulus to social action for peace.

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BECOMING A CONSCIENTIOUS OBJECTOR. THE USE OF ARMS AND INSTITUTIONAL ACCOUNTING PRACTICES.

SALJO, Roger and ADELSWARD, Viveka; Linkoping University, Linkoping, Sweden.

The background of this contribution is an interest in communication within ; the context of social institutions in complex societies. The particular empirical study reported here concerns the discursive work involved in establishing whether an individual enrolled for military service should be granted exemption from carrying arms.

In the Swedish context, exemption from carrying arms was decided on by means of a process in which on eof the elements was that the conscript had to account for his motives during an interview with a psychologist. Within the context of this interview, the psychologist had to probe the motives of the applicant to see if they complied with the legal requirements for being exempted.

The results show how the interaction between the CO and the psychologist cannot be understood without carefully considering the communicative resources for argumentation offered by different social institutions. The dialogue, although of a very personal nature and relating to the convictions of one particular individual, must be seen as an encounter between social institutions whose accounting practices with respect to arms differ radically but still have to be accepted as valid in a complex society. The interaction between the psychologist and the CO therefore becomes an arena in which different institutions encounter each other's ethical and moral standards, and in which the individuals - even when expressing their personal convictions - are using the communicative genres created by those institutions.

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POLITICAL PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOLOGY OF PEACEMAKING: DEVELOPMENTS AND APPLICATION.

Convener: HARARI, C.; Psychological Services for the Whole Family, New York, USA.

The dveloping discipline of political psychology draws on such diverse sources as political science, philosophy, sociology and from a number of branches of psychology. This interdisciplinary social science is organizationally expressed by the International Society of Political Psychology and its journal, Political Psychology. The organization holds annual meetings throughout the world. Newer in this field is the Division of Political Psychology of IAAP which, in addition to its broad interest, places particular emphasis on the psychology peacemaking.

Rapid and unexpeted shifts in the world scene have brought about the unravelling of Soviet power in former USSR and socialist eastern Europe. From former conglomerate Yugoslavia comes daily reports of barbarous, bloody warfare on an interreligious andinterethnic basis with victimization of huge numbers of civilians, including women and children. In Somalia and elsewhere in Africa, disease, starvation and trial wars are maiming and killing vast numbers of women and children as well as combatants and noncombatants alike. UN peace efforts have been largely ineffective. In a remarkable turn of events, Israel and the PLO are negotiating over giving up captured territories to Palestinian control. We obviously need to develop greater skllls in scientific prediction as well as to perfect our work in a wide range of activities, including negotiation and conflict resolution.

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THE RISE OF THE RIGHT-WING EXTREMISM IN RUSSIA AS A THREAT TO THE WORLD PEACE AND A CHALLENGE TO THE PSYCHOLOGY OF PEACEMAKING.

AGEYEV, V. S.; University of Moscow, Moscow, Russia.

The rise of the right-wing extremism in Russia creates a serious threat to political stability within the country as well as a threat to the entire world peace. In my prosentation I am going to emphasize the urgent necessity of interdisciplinary analysis of this phenomenon, its causes and consequences. The psychological theory of Identity Crisis as an inevitable sequences of economical, social, cultural and political crises are developed. The similarity and diversity with the political development in Germany during Weimar Republics is traced. The phenomenon of Vladimir Jirinovsky, one of the leaders of Russian nationalists, will be considered.

The empirical data of the author's five years' study on Russian authoritarianism will be reported. The applications for psychological intervention will be suggested. The necessity

of international cooperation of scholars will be argued.

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VIOLENCE AND POST-MODERN BELIEFS.

GARZON, A.; Valencia University, Valencia, Spain.

The growing literature on post-modernism shows its critical importance for the understanding of Interpersonal relationship transfomations. The post-modern beliefs about violence in the social behaviour are a particular aspect of this transformation. These beliefs help to shape the Light Sentiments of the Postmodern Society. Our initial objective is to analyse the factors implicated in the pacification cf interpersonal reelationship. A particular combination of cultural (postmodern beliefs), politic (democratic attitudes) and institutional dimensions (personalizaded societies) have created new styles of interpersonal behaviour. Our strategy for dealing with this topic is to analyse the opinion of sample of spanish young about the role of violence in the social life (interpersonal, political and social institutions). Your opinions are analysed across your answers to some items in the Scale of Postmodernity (CSC, elaborated by J. Seoane and A. Garón, 1989).

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THEMES IN RECENT BOOKS ON PEACE.

BLUMBERG, H. H.; University of London, London, England.

This paper provides a brief general survey of some of the main themes present in selected books and monographs (mainly from North America and Europe) published since the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Some of the topics represented are arms control, conflict resolution, historical background, intra and interpersonal peacemakinq, the Middle East and other regional concerns, religious considerations, United States policy, and visions for world peace. Implication for peacemaking are considered.

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CROSS-NATIONAL STUDIES ON VIOLENCE AND AGGRESSION : REPORTS FROM FOUR COUNTRIES.

Convener: IRITANI, Toshio; Tokai University, Hiratsuka-shi, Japan.

This symposium discusses the world-wide issues of violence and agression from four different countries; Namely from England, Germany, Philippines and Japan and informs how forms and types of different violence agressions are observed in school-children, pupils and adults.

Based on empirical studies of their own countries each author discusses how solutions to these problems are offered in family, schools, communities and policy-makers.

In addition, the general questions of whether aggressions and violence are endowed with human nature or they are learned from a given sociological environrnent will be discussed and the validity of the so-called Serville statement on violence (1986) will be questioned and a conclusion and recommendation for future researches will be discussed

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FREQUENCY AND TYPES OF BULLYING IN UK SCHOOLS.

SMITH, Peter; University of Sheffield, Sheffield, England.

Aggression and violence in schools often take the form of bullying - systematic and/or repeated acts of aggression by a single child or children against a weaker opponent. After decades of neglect, the importance of assessing bullying and intervening to reduce its effects is becoming widely recognised.

In this paper I shall summarise the results of several studies carried out at Sheffield schools, using individual interviews, peer nominations, and school based surveys using a modified Olweus questionnaire. The largest survey is based on approx 7,000 pupils from 24 schools.

I shall report on (1) the frequency of different types of bullying - direct physical, verbal, and indirect; (2) attitudes to bullying behaviour; (3) willingness to seek help if bullied; (4) age trends over the range 8 to 16 years; (5) sex differences in the above.

I shall also summarise the steps taken to reduce bullying in a recent intervention project in 23 schools, and outline the impact of these interventions on frequencies and types of bullying behaviours.

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ACCEPTANCE OF VIOLENCE AND WILLINGNESS TO VIOLENT ACTIONS AMONG YOUNG GERFGANG FRINDTE AND FRIEDRICH FUNKE.

FRINDTE, Wolfgang; University of Jena, Jena, Germany.

The authors'analysis of violence and possible chances to reduce violent actions is based on a social-construtivist point of view. Proceeding from that perspective we try to investigate four system-specific levels of social constructions about the acceptance of violence and willingness to violent actions (i.e. a.the field of opportunities, b. the field of social meaning, c.the field of social interactions, d.the field of individual sense).

In a hypothesis-generating investigation we polled 1177 adolescents in Germany. Results of the factor-, cluster- and discrimination-analyses will be presented in the paper. Our empirical findings are enriched by narrative interviews with some thirty young people from different youth-cultures. Based on our empirical results we intend deriving specific hypotheses about macrosocial, microsocial, and invidual bachgrouns of the increasing (esp. politically motivated) acceptance of violence and willingness to violent actions among adolescents.

Supplemantary data from our study in Russia permit further comparisons.

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SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS OF MILITARY POLITICAL VIOLENCE: THE PHILIPPINE CASE.

MONTIEL, Cristina; Ateneo de Manila University, Manila, Philippines.

This paper will identify social psychological factors behind the series of seven coup attempts in the Philippines, from 1986 until 1990.

To introduce the discussion, a backgrounder on military political violence in the Philippines will be given. This will include summaries of the nature, human/material costs, and the historial context of recent Philippine coup attempts.

The Philippine military will then be compared to militaries in developed nations and will be shown to be politically different along the following lines: (1) the role of the military is for internal security, not external defense (2) there is powerful hostility toward politicians and organizaded groups and (3) the prototype of the military organization is the World War II infantry battalion, consisting mostly of group troops that intermingle with citizenry. These differences will be shown to relate to political-violence proneness among Filipino military officers.

The paper will also review factors that shaped the political orientations of Philippine military officers and encouraged political intervencionism. These psychological antecedents were: (1) previous to the series of coup; career experiences in positions of power during the 15 years of Martial Rule; frustration of the power drive (2) the military's (mis-)interpretation of the successful People's Power Revolution of 1986 as a triumphant coup d'etat an (3) culture of authoritarianism in the Philippines (and other Asian countries as well). Some reference to relative deprivation will be made at the end of the report.

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THE JAPANESE COLLEGE STUDENTS' CONCEPT OF VIOLENCE AND JAPANESE SOCIETY.

ITO, Takehiko; Wako University, Tokyo, Japan.

Although the Seville Statement on Violence(l986), a scientific statement adopted by UNESCO and many scientific organizations, says that war is not a biological necessity but social invention, belief that war is intrinsic to human nature prevails among young people in Finland (Wahlstrom, 1985) and the United States(Adams & Bosh, 1986). Adams pointed out that young people who believe the myth that war is intrinsic to human nature are less likely to take part in action for peace. We surveyed Japanese college students' belief about human nature and their attitude toward current peace issues, such as deployment of Japanese military forces to Asian countries. About half of the students support Social- Darwinian statements, recognizing war as a struggle for life and an instinctive phenomenon, but they also incline to accept the counter opinion, appeared in the Seville Statement. Characteristics of violence in Japan, such as group bullying in the school, will also be discussed in relation to the structure of Japanese society.

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SOCIAL MOVEMENTS AND POLITICAL PARTICIPATION: COMPARISION BETWEEN SOUTHERN EUROPE AND LATIN AMERICA

Convener: PAEZ, Dario; Basque Country University, San Sebastian, Spain.

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SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF NATIONALIST MOUVEMENTS IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.

APALATEGUI, Jokin; Basque Country University, San Sebastian, Spain.

On confond souvent les réalités nationalitaires et les nationalismes. Nous voulons, tout d'abord, définir au moyen des criteres historico-sociologiques, les phénomenes en question. Ensuite, nous essayerons de faire une analyse psychosociologique (avec des variables de conscience collective, identité, decisions collectives, etc.) des mouvements nationalitaires de l'Europe du Sud: des leur production a l'expression totale ou la reconnaissance.

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PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS OF POLITICAL PARTICIPATION.

BASABE, Neklane; PAEZ, Dario and ASUN, Domingo; Basque Country University, San Sebastian, Spain.

In this communication we will review the concepts of political participation and psychosocial factors (locus of control, selfefficacy, group deprivation, social integratlon and anomia) specifically applied to the situation in Chile and in the Basque country during the years 1970-1990.

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EMOTIONAL CLIMATE AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN CHILE.

PAEZ, Dario and ASUN, Domingo; Basque Country University, San Sebastián, Spain.

GONZÁLEZ, José Luis; Diego Portales University, Santiago, Chile.

In this communication we will present the concepts of emotional climate (De Rivera, 1992) and collective mood: We define emotional climate as the chronic accesibility of a group of emotion in the collective mood during a certain period of time. We will present, by means of qunatitative and qualitative data, a synopsis of the political periods in Chile (1970-1990), of the changes in emotional climate and of collective behaviours wich took place in each of these periods. Lastly, we will draw the conclusions of our case research for the study of the social psychology of political participation.

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SOCIOPSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS AND SOCIAL MOVEMENTS IN LATINAMERICA AND EUROPE.

BAJOIT, Gy; Louvain Catholic University, Louvain, Belgium.

Cette communication examine les facteurs psychosociologiques, particulierement identitaires, associés a la participation en mouvements sociaux en Amerique Latine (Bolivie, Chili) et en Lurope du Sud.

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PSYCHOLOGYCAL ASPECTS OF NATIONAL CONFLICTS AND WARS IN EAST EUROPE.

Convener: PECJAK, Vid; University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.

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THE INFLUENCE OF HISTORY, CULTURE AND SOCIALIZATION ON CRUEL BEHAVIOR OF WARRIORS IN EX-YUGOSLAVIA.

PECJAK, Vid; University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.

The war in ex-Yugoslavia is characterized by extreme cruelty, which is influenced by some deep rooted psychological factors. They originate from historical, cultural and social circumstances in past periods. The main are: 1 The national characters which have been formed during history (the main is so-called "Dinarian character"). 2. Communist indoctrination and "brain washing" which produced compliance and an general obsession with enemy. 3. Stigmatization ot ethnic groups. Under communism it was repressed but not removed. The change of political system immediately revived it. In some parts of ex-Yugoslavia this conditions have been stronger and more influental than in others. After the war began, the war itself generated cruel behaviore because of such psychological states as vengence, fear or extreme deprivation.

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REFUGEES AND WAR PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF CROATIAN AND BOSNIAN REFUGEES' EXPERIENCE.

POLIC, M.; University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia.

The disintegration of Yugoslavia, based on unresolved political and national relations, and on the background of hard economic crisis, lead to the war which is, according to its consequences, in a way even more destructive than was the World War II. In Croatia and Bosnia it has caused the death and suffering of thousands, and lions of people to leave their homes. Some 30.000 Croats and 70.000 Bosnians left for Slovenia, respectively. While the majority of these refugees were settled in the homes of their relatives and friends, a few thousands were placed in refugees' centres. A sample of refugees from these centres and families (258 Croatians in 1991 and 290 Bosnians in 1992) were questioned about their experience as refugees. Questions refer to demographic data, evaluation of their position, feelings, stress reactions, relations with domestic people, contacts with home, military situation at home etc. While both groups experienced strong stress reactions and anxiety (as measured by Horowitz's IES and Spielberg's STAI X-1), their answers point out to a number of problems, e.g. lack of information, of control over the situation, of perspective etc. Refugees from the centres were under somewhat greater stress and viewed their situation as worse than the other group of examinees. Concerning relations between Serbia and Croatia or Bosnia, their picture was strictly black and white.

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SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL WAR AGAIN CROATIA

KOLESARIC, Vladimir; Philosophical, Zagreb, Croatia.

The war against Croatia has - as all wars according to L.Berkowitz do - a rational basis: a carefully developed strategy to "clean" certain geographical areas from all members of ethnically undesirable population and to replace them by members og only one nation. This strategy was based on "total" psychological war in which all known psychological means were used: rumors, propaganda, destruction of cultural values ( churches, national monuments, museums, libraries), destruction of communal social and security places (schools, hospitals) and objects of microcultural identity (graveyards), public masacres of elderly people, women and children, ritual masacres of domestic animals and "other means" (R.W. Bloom).

Psychological mechanism elicited by this psychological war was the feeling of utter helplesness which resulted in escape behavior desired by the enemy. The presentation is based on real happenings from the war against Croatia whose analysis showed that they all followed the same scenario.

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PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF THE WAR AGAINST CROATIA.

KRIZMANIC, Mirjana; Philosophical Faculty, Zagreb, Croatia.

War as a collective stress situation has a lot in common with natural catastrophes but there are also some important psychological differences originating from the fact that each and every war is the result of intentional and planned human activity. Psychological consequences are even more difficult and qualitatively different when the war is waged between people who for centuries have shared the same territory, and for decades the same state, city, village or even house. Such a war destroys all suppositions and beliefs people have about themselves, other people and the world.

However, it should be stressed that all psychological consequences are not negative. Strong feelings of togetherness and rightfulness of a defensive war significantly enhanced victims' adjustment, which is illustrated by the results gained in research studies of invalides and displaced persons.

Although a war waged on one's own territory takes a greater toll in civilian suffering its defensive character may significantly change some of its psychological consequences. The final consequences of this still unfinished war will of course depend on its duration and its final outcome.

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THE ROLE OF BYSTANDERS IN INHIBITING GROUP VIOLENCE.

STAUB, Ervin; University of Massachusetts, Amherst, USA.

The passivity of a population enables a government or a perpetrator group to increasingly harm members of a subgroup of society or an outside group, in cases of ethnic violence and genocide. The passivity of external bystanders, other nations and the community of nations, is also extremly important in the evolution of increasing violence against victims. Among the reasons for this passivity are that nations define national interest in terms of material interestst and power, and do not see themselves as moral agents.

Passivity affirms the perpetrators, and leads bystanders to distance themselves from the victims, making later actions less likely. Early actions by nations, before the perpetrators develop strong commitment to a destructive course, ranging from protests to boycotts, have the potential to inhibit group violence. Later usually more intense actions are needed to stop perpetrators. These issues will be discussed in relation to Bosnia and other examples of group violence.

International institutions are required for early warning, activating a response by the community of nations, as well as for working with hostile groups to diminish hostility and prevent violence. It is also important to help victims, both for their own sake, and because without that they are likely to become perpetrators.

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PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF CONFLICTUAL POLITICAL DISCUSSIONS IN RUSSIA.

NUSHAKOVA, Tatyana and LATYNOV, Vladimir; Inslitute of Psychology, Moscow, Russia.

There was a revival of political discussions in Russio in 1991-1993. Their subject matter was usually politics, economics. But being realized by real living people they bore at the same time o distinct psychological imprint. This is why they can serve a natural psychological model of a political conflict.

A group of scholars of the institute of Psychology RAS has developed a technique to study conflictual discussions by analyzing texts produced by the speakers. The technique consists of a system of measures aiming to describe intentions, goals, tacticts of partipants. The materials of discussions between legistative and executive branches of state power were the object of analysis. There were singled out two stages of events development: /1/ September 1991 - January 1993, /2/ February 1993 - October 1993.

The nature of public speeches of the leaders on the two sides differed at both stages; e.g. the speaker of the Parliament, R. Khazbutatov criticized the President's team at the first stage, at the second one - the President himself.

Using the technique of verbal texts analysis there were singled out the main tendencies in conflict interpretation, its cause, mechanisms and possible consequences, the general tone of discussions, the ways to discredit or to promote the opponents' views.

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PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF CONFLICTUAL POLITICAL DISCUSSIONS IN RUSSIA (1991-1993 YEARS).

USHAKOVA, T. N. and LATYNOV, V. V.; Institute of Psychology RAS,

Moscow, Russia.

There was a revival of political discussions in Russia in 1991-1993. Their subject matter was usually politics, economics. But being realized by real living people they bore at the same time a distinct psychological imprint. This is why they can serve a natural psychological model of a political conflict.

A group of scholars of the Institute of Psychology RAS has developed a technique to study conflictual discussions by analyzing texts produced by the speakers. The technique consist of a system of measures aiming to describe intentions, goals, tactics of participants. The materials of discussions between legislative and executive branches of State power were the object of analysis.

There were singled out 2 stages of events development: 1) September 1991 - January 1993,2) February 1993 - October 1993.

The nature of public speeches of the leaders on the two sides differed at both stages. For example, Speaker of the Parliament R.Khazbulatov criticized the President's team at the first stage, at the second one the President himself.

Using the technique of verbal texts analysis there were singled out the main tendencies in conflict interpretation, its cause, mechanisms and possible consequences, the general tone of discussions, the ways to discredit or to promote the opponents' views.

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THE INNER MECHANISM OF ETHNOCONFLICTS

AMIRADJIBI, David; Tbilisi Institute of Psychology, Tbilisi, Gruzia.

The ethnoconflicts are promoted by the so-called great countries. These are just the conflicts among their huge national, religious and political interests. But afterwards the inner mechanism is mainly based on the ethnopsychological pecularities of ethnogroups, their cultural, religious, linguistic traditions, their geopolitical, historical situation and their unconscious inner deeply rooted motivations and ambitions. Outer political forces use these psychological factors. By manipulating the political language they provoke psycholoyical tensions, stimulating aggressive psychological set against so-called "enemies" As a result thousand of innocent people become a victim of bloody games. How can these great problems be solved? First of all the great countries ouavht to stop their political and juridical dialogues and to get realistic political balance. But solving the political problems means only to regulate state policy and welfare of the ruling parties and elite on expence of the blood, nerves and life of the people. Parallel to political dialogue the psychologists, linguistists, historians philosophers e.t.c. have to study these factors to get some model of reconcilement of the conflicting groups. They should device some effective psychological and cultural therapy to release people from the state of despodency, feeling of inadequacy, lowered activity, pessimism about future, hopelessness and seld-deprecation. On the other hand it is necessary to diminish the false ambitions of the "winners". In my report I should like to propose some conctere models based on psychology of set by D Uznadze.

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NATIONALISM AND ETHNOCENTRISM: A PRIORITY PUZZLE FOR PSYCHOLOGY.

Convener: BREWSTER, M.; University of California, Santa Crus, USA.

With the Cold War ended, the resurgence of virulent ethnocentrism-- nationalism, tribalism, and ethnic and religious conflict--is a feature of contemporary world disorder that unpleasantly surprised many psychologists and other social and behavioral scientists. The phenomenon obviously challenges the resources of all the human-focused disciplines. Psychologists especially need to reexamine their theories and assumptions if psychology is to contribute to understanding toward reducing lethal conflict and promoting just peace. Current and recent events remind us that potentialities for escalating hatred and destructive conflict between "us" and "them" may be more deeply rooted and require more compensatory attention than the liberal ideologies shared by many psychologists and social scientists have assumed. The symposium reexamines nationalism and ethnocentrism from a variety of perspectives, attending to lessons from the study of prejudice and to perspectives from biological and cultural evolution. Implications of right-wingauthoritarianism are examined in the South African context. Ideals of multiculturalism receive critical consideration.

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ETHNIC IDENTITY, NATIONALISM, AND THE NEED FOR DISTINCTIVE INCLUSION.

BREWER, Marilynn; Ohio State University; Columbus, USA.

The self-sacrifice that is often evident in violent interethnic conflict poses a puzzle for traditional psychological theories based on individual self-interest. In its virulent forms, nationalism and ethnocentrism defy the premises of self-interested individualism and require a better understanding of the role of social group living in human evolution. The "optimal distinctiveness" model of group identity (Brewer, 1991) posits that the requirements of interdependent group living resulted in two opposing social motives--the need for inclusion and the need for differentiation from others. Resolution of opposing needs is achieved through social identification with distinctive ingroups. As a consequence, clear rules of exclusion as well as inclusion are essential for a secure sense of self and personal identity, and maintaining group distinctiveness may rival status and power as bases of intergroup discrimination and conflict. The results of experiments designed to test the basic premises of the optimal distinctiveness model will be discussed.

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NATIONAL SELF-DETERMINATION AND ETHNIC CLEANSING: SOME LETHAL CONSEQUENCES OF ETHNIC NATIONALISM.

KELMAN, Herbert; Harvard University, Cambridge, USA.

National identity is a significant source o dignity and self-esteem for individuals and groups, as wel as the predominant basis for discrimination and oppression in the contemporary world. Nationalist ideology, with its aim of establishing a political state to express a people's group identity, is thus a potential vehicle for protecting and enhancing the material and psychological well-being of a population. Yet, in keeping with the dualities and contradictions inherent in nationalism, the quest for an ethnically pure and homogeneous state leads to ethnic cleansing in its various forms. National self-determinationt especially in the form of an independent state--cannot, therefore, be viewed as an automatic right. It must be based on negotiations with those potentially affected by creation of such a state, especially minority populations. An independent national state is not entitled to international legitimacy unless it provides absolute guarantees for the protection of minority rights. This means that no state can be or strive to be ethnically pure. A modern state consistent with the principles of democracy and human rights can exist only within a pluralistic framework. The concept of an ethnically homogeneous state implies fulfillment of the national identity of the dominan ethnic group at the expense of minorities, and serves as an invitation to ethnic cleansing.

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AUTHORITARIANISM, ETHNOCENTRISM, AND POLITICAL INTOLERANCE AMONG WHITES IN THE FUTURE SOUTH AFRICA.

DUCKITT, John; University of The Witwatersrand, Wits, South Africa.

Recent research using Altemeyer's RWA scale has demonstrated the importance of authoritarianism for explaining important social and political phenomena. However, this research has not yet clarified our theoretical understanding of authoritarianism. Several approaches have been formulated. One approach views a powerful but insecure group identification that gives rise to a demand for group cohesion as the basic psychological principle underlying authoritarianism. Another approach suggests that it is fear of a dangerous world, and particularly social disorder, that creates a fundamental intolerance for dissent and support for repressive social organization. The current transition in South Africa provides a unique opportunity to pit these two perspectives against each other. The group cohesion approach suggests that the anti-Black prejudice and ethnocentric ingroup preference of White right-wing authoritarians would generate opposition to political intolerance and infringements of civil liberties by a future Black, left-wing, majority rule government. Altemeyer's approach suggests that the deeply rooted political intolerance of the right-wing authoritarian would override their ethnocentrism and result in paradoxical support for an authoritarian new black government likely to use its powers against the white minority. I report findings from an empirical study among white South Africans that directly tested these competing hypotheses and provides powerful and counter-intuitive clarification of the issue.

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WHITHER MULTICULTURALISM?.

KAGITCIBASI, Cigdem; Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study, Wassenaar, The Netherlands.

The ideal of a pluralistic society and multiculturalism has been upheld by many tolerant and well-meaning psychologists and social scientists as a solution to intolerance, prejudice and intergroup conflict. "Integration", rather than "assimilation", is in turn proposed to be the social-psychological (as well as political) mechanism leading to multiculturalism. Though basically sound, these views may be positing the necessary but not the sufficient conditions for attaining intergroup harmony. Indeed, if other crucial measures are not taken, unexpected opposite results may ensue, as evidenced by recent ethnic/religious conflict all over the world, including the industrialized West.

It should be noted that while multiculturalism promises on the one hand, to be culturally enriching, on the other hand, it carries the risk of accentuating (cultural) differences. Unless concerted efforts are made to engender an appreciation of these differences, ideally through equal-status interdependent contact opportunities, the increased awareness of intergroup differences may exacerbate the "us-them" type of thinking. Thus, multiculturalism, by itself, is no guarantee of tolerance.

The problem is examined by considering ethnic minority issues in Europe as a case in point. The potentials and limitations of psychological theory and practice in providing solutions to the problem will be discussed.

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IMPACTS OF WAR ON CHILDREN: CULTURAL CONTEXTS AND IMPLICATION FOR EFFECTIVE INTERVENTIONS.

Convener: WESSELLS, Michael. Randolph-Macon College, Ashland, U.S.A.

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CHILDREN: POLITICAL VIOLENCE AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT

CAIRNS, Ed; University of Ulster, Ulster, N. Ireland.

Most research concerned with the impact of political violence on children has concentrated on the area of psychiatric effects. A neglected topic has been the possible impact of political violence on children's moral development. This paper will review work carried out largely in Northern Ireland, but in other locations also, to illustrate the need for further research in this important area which has implications for children's views on the use of aggression and peace making in conflict resolutions.

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TRANSITION ENTRE GUERRE ET PAIX: LE DEUIL.

MÉTRAUX, Jean-Claude; Clinique Psychiatrique Universitaire, Cery, Switzerland.

A partir de ses expériences, réalisées principalement au Nicaragua et en Suisse -avec des enfants bosniaques et leurs familles-, et celles de collegues travaillant dans d'autres contextes (Territoires occupés, Afrique du Sud, El Salvador), I'auteur s'interroge sur le deuil "oublié", parfois dénié, que peut représenter, au cours d'un processus de paix, la "perte" de l'état de guerre. Les guerres au long cours définissent en effet une stabilité que la paix menace. La crise qui s'en suit, individuelle et sociale, peut compromettre le processus de paix et la santé psychique des enfants d'aujourd~ui et de demain (seconde génération). D'ou l'intéret d'une telle analyse.

Cette crise sera étudiée sous divers angles: modes de coping, mécanismes de défense, processus de deuil, évolution des roles familiaux, dynannique des réseaux sociaux. Des interventions seront ensuite proposées afin de favoriser la résolution de ce deuil oublié et la survie a long terme du processus de paix. De telles interventions impliquent que le psychologue et le professionnel de la santé mentale jouent un rBle actif dans leur communauté au cours de cette phase de transition. Les conditions de réalisation dlun tel role seront explorées.

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IMPACT OF TRAUMATIC EXPERIENCES ON DREAM CONTENT AND DREAM STRUCTURE AMONG PALESTINIAN CHILDREN.

PUNAMÁKI, Raija-Leena; University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.

The study focuses on the psychological healing processes that may help children to cope with and recover from traumatic experiences. Dreaming is understood as a process integrating a person's sleeping and waking realities, and therefore it is vital for children' maintaining mental health in traumatic conditions. War and political violence, however, disrupt the healing function of dreaming; sleeping difficulties and nightmares are found to be the common sequelae of trauma. This presentation aims at furthering our understanding of how traumatic experiences affect children's dreaming. For that purpose 150 Palestinian children from the Gaza strip and 150 matched controls from Galilee were studied for their nocturnal dreams. The methods included a seven night sleep diary, a questionnaire on children's mental health and traumatic experiences, as well as a test for their coping resources. Children's dream reports were analyzed by using cognitive, psychodynamic and narrative approaches to dreaming.

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ETHICAL ISSUES IN THE TREATMENT OF CHILDREN IN WAR ZONES.

STRAKER, Gillian; University of the Witwatersrand, Braamfontein, South Africa.

Conspicuous by its relative absence from the burgeoining literature on children and war is a focus on the ethical dilemmas working with such children inevitably pose. With reference to case studies, this paper illustrates common dilemmas in the application of traditional theories of ethical practice in the context of war and the continuous traumatic stress this generates.

The paper outlines six ethical principles commonly accepted as crucial in clinical practice, namely, fidelity, non-malifience, beneficence, justice, autonomy, and self interest. It shows how adherence to each of these principles may be compromised in contexts of war and explores further the degree to which these principles are themselves context and culture bound.

The paper does not provide any ready made answers. It does however, raise a number of ethical issues that need to be placed on the agenda of those working with children in war zones and it gives some suggestions about how these issues may be approached.

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STRESS AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ADAPTATION OF REFUGEES

Convener: AJDUKOVIC, Dean; University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia.

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WHEN SYSTEMS ARE DESTROYED AND NEW ONES MUST BE BUILT. ON MEANING-CREATING CONVERSATION, ORGANIZED VIOLENCE AND EXILE.

SVEAASS, Nora; University of Oslo, Kringsja, Norway.

Refugees have experienced that their everyday lives and meaningful projects have been destroyed by war, violence and oppression. In exile they find themselves on the receiving and dependant end of the helping systems. The stories they tell are dominated by loss, grief, feeling of strangeness and often low self-esteem. A family therapy project at the University of Oslo has aimed at establishing meaningful conversations with refugee families and their helping systems. When living in exile, problem organizing systems, both within the family and in relation to the helpers are easily developed. It is important to develop conversations that can lead out of stuckness and "dead ends". Families and helpers are interviewed together on their thoughts about the problems and solution to them and on the relations between the people invo]ved in the problem. Families are approached as a system with resources and ideas to solutions. The therapist have taken an exploring and curios attitude from a position of "not knowing". The notion of therapeutic conversations in the light of trauma and culture is discussed. This approach will also be seen in relation to other family therapeutic approaches with regards to helping familíes in exile establish a new life situation for themselves.

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WHO IS IN CHARGE HERE?.

GORDANA, Vucinic and KMETIC, Nikola; Privte Practice, Rotterdam, Holland.

A traumatic war humiliation is, in the case of refugees, followed up by an intolerable existential situation (economic insecurity, lack of plans for future, lack of any defined position in the social hierarchy and vacuum of social identity) that brings severe identity crisis at personal, family, group and/or national level. In this paper we will focus on family system as, according to our observations, the most disturbed one. Cybernetic approach (that the family is a self-regulating system based on certain rules) teach us that if we change the rules, we change the organization and thus pave the way for a sudden jump toward a new organization. Rules and equilibrium of the old, working family system have been destroyed by war and displacement and new organization took place. This new organization is usua]ly dysfunctional and becomes a source of further personal and interpersonal deterioration. In a healthy and functional family system the rules of parent and children are stable and defined, parental couple is capable to support, protect and comfort children etc. In the refuges center we worked in, we found quite opposite situation: parent who are confused, alienated and lost in pseudo-power games, who are avoiding responsibility and shifting blame to each other. Generation barrier between parents and children doesn't exist, parents with no wish and less potentials to adapt to new society, and language problems became inefficient in solving problems and shortly, we can say: children took parental rolls. Consequences of this reversal of family structure are obvious even now, and in long terms more decline can be expected unless we put an effort to help them to restore family balance.

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PROVIDING PSYCHOSOCIAL ASSISTANCE TO REFUGEE FAMILIES.

AJAUKOVIC, Marina; University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia.

Refugee children and youth are at high mental health risk because they are simultaneously confronted with two demanding processes: multiple developmental challenges encountered by any growing person and multiple traumatic experiences of the fleeing. For the refugee children in Croatia particularly troubling are loss of important others, loss of physical capacity, loss of parental support and protection, loss home, life with distressed adults etc. Data about the psychosocial needs and problems of refugee children (N=329) were gathered during detailed structured interviews with the mother. A considerable range of tress-related reactions among them were identified e.g. sleeping and eating disorders, separation fears, withdrawal or aggression. As well general depression score, measured by adapted Kovacs' Child Depression Inventory (CDI), is for refugee children (N=52) significatly higher than was far school children before relation between family members, mother's poorer relation toward child and child's school problem since they are in implementation of supportive programs in two refuggee shelters that are still in progress.

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PSYCHOLOGICAL HELP TO CHILDREN.

BURNIK, Zora; Counselling Center, Ljubljana, Slovenia.

The first part is dedicated to the working model of the project Psychological Help for Refugee Children. Some basic starting points of the psychosocial help to refugee children are emphasized, such as increasing the number of experts who can offer help, spreading the knowledge in mental hygiene to adults, especially to teachers in refugee centers, through which the mental-hygienic experts can reach the most threatened children. Fundamental working principle of the project is presented: the mobile groups of experts who visit the refugee children. The second part is dedicated to the approach to children who need psychological help, either those who are refugees without their parents, or those who lost one of their close family members in the war. Typical emotional reactions of those children and methods of psychological help for them are presented. The method is divided into three levels: l. The events from the past and the emotional reaction to them, 2. The emotional needs and the therapeutic approach to present emotional conditions. 3. The orientation to the present and future. The psychological help is at this point dealing with the child's troubles in adaptation and with searching for the ways of strengthening coping mechanism. Levels of the psychological help through the work with a group of children are presented.

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DEVELOPMENT OF COMPREHENSIVE PSYCHOSOCIAL PROGRAMS FOR REFUGEES IN CAMPS.

AJDUKOVIC, Dean; University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia.

A comprehensive program of psychosocial support to 2,500 refugees in a camp has been developed over a period of one year. It operates within an outreach primary prevention paradigm with the basic assumptions: (1) refugees are exposed to multiple sources of stress which have cumulative effect, (2) refugees are mentally healthy individuals who have suffered traumatic stress and are therefore at risk for their mental health, (3) refugees have group-specific and individual needs and coping resources; (4) there are groups and individuals who are exceptionally vulnerable and need special attention, (5) interventions can help eliminate some sources of stress, reinforce resources, improve coping skills, and moderate manifestations of stress, and (6) services provided within the camp should integrate with the local social services. Some of the interventions developed are the following: emotional and social support to families; play and social skills development for children; support for children with learning difficulties; helping parents deal with their children's distress; help in structuring leisure time; facilitating mutual support groups; individual counselling; alcohol abuse prevention program; screening and treatment of PTSD cases; group work with depressive women; monitoring and care for psychiatric patients.

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NATIONAL IDENTITY AND NATION-RELATED ORIENTATIONS.

Convener: BOSKI, Pawel; Polish Academic of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland.

This symposium is conceived as a continuation of a workshop on a similar theme organized by E.Sousa at 10th Meeting of EAESP in Lisbon (September, 1993). The topic is of importance both in theoretical and in practical, political terms; the latter applies to the current changes and prospects for future in Europe.

The following problems and questions will be addressed by the speakers:

(i) theoretical underpinnings of national (self)-identity, social identity theorv (SIT) and alternative approaches, cultural or national identity?;

(ii) identities across nations (bi- and multi-national) and beyond nations (regional identities below and above national level);

(iii) national identity in the system of other self-identities and in individual's psichological make-up;

(iv) national identity and related orientations: patriotism nationalism - internationalism; antecedents and consequences;

(v) focus on Europe: social change and national issues, conditions building up of a European identity.

The speakers will present a balanced Eastern - Western mix of approaches and data: from emerging European Union (Italy- deRosa, and Portugal- Sousa), through the problems of integrating Germany (Mummendey, Simoll). to national vs. European dilemmas in Poland and in Hungary (Boski, Eros).

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NATIONAL OR CULTURAL IDENTITY AND NATIONALISM VS. PATRIOTISM.

BOSKI, Pawel; Polish Academy Of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland.

This paper will outline theoretical frameworks in which national identity has been conceptualized. Specifically, social identity theory and cultural identity approach will be compared and contrasted. The author takes the issue with SIT by pointing out that: (i) it is conceptually acultural; (ii) it leads to false predictions, such as: ingroup identification universally causes outgroup discrimination; and (iii) it recommends dubious remedy: to avoid outgroup discrimination we should diminish ingroup identification and social categorizations.

The cultural approach, here advocated, emphasizes nonantagonistic participation of individuals in cultural heritage of various groups. It also goes beyond the categorical-personal dichotomy in our relations with others.

In the above context, distinction between nationalism and patriotism will be introduced. Studies will be reported showing positive relationship between Polish cultural identity and patriotism but not with nationalism.

Finally, the cultural approach will be extended as a working scheme for conceptualization of European identity.

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SOCIAL IDENTIFICATIONS AND EC INTEGRATION: POTENTIAL CONFLICTS IN THE LABOR MARKET.

SOUSA, Elizabeth; Instituto Superior de Psicología Aplicada, Lisboa, Portugal.

European Community integration and the internalization of markets challenge and even impose threat on national cultures and identifications.

This paper deals with representations and attitudes about EC and the nation-state in the work settings. In one study, subjects were presented with a hypothetical personnel selection task. The targets, representing both the 12 countries of EC and other countries, were supposed to apply for a position similar or dissimilar to our subjects' actual position in the hierarchical structure. Subjects were asked to form an impression, evaluate the candidates on a series of traits and take a decision concerning hypothetical admittance for the job.

Results will be discussed in terms of identifications both at the national and individual levels.

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MULTI-DIMENSIONAL IDENTITY AND PROCESSES OF IDENTIFICATION IN SOCIAL REPRESENTATIONS OF EUROPEAN COMMUNITY (AMONG YOUNG ITALIANS).

SILVANA, Anna Maria; "La Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy.

This paper is intended as the first presentation of results concerning the section on "multidimensional identity (self, local, national, supranational) and processes of identification in social representations of the EC", chosen from a more complex research project.

Theoretical framework and preliminary results of the project were discussed at two conferences of 1993 (the last one at EAESP Meeting in Lisbon). This time we shall concentrate on the following themes:

(i) the processes of identification (sense of belonging) felt by Ss to their own town, region, home country and European Community and geographical Europe;

(ii) value judgments of the different geographical-political entities named above, with the objective of discerning the breadth and degree of inclusion as well as anchoring of specific places in personal identity;

(iii) the influence of the awareness of foci of tension or conflict at a regional level, between neighboring areas or between one's own country and other European countries on the social representations of EC.

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IDENTITY AND MODERNIZATION- A HUNGARIAN PERSPECTIVE.

EROS, Ferec; Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary.

This paper will discuss the problem of national identity in relation to the concept of multicultural society and European integration. The argument goes that national identity has to face challenges from two directions: from "below", i.e., from the side of the traditional as well as newly emerging ethnic, religious, and regional identities; and from "above", i.e., the supranational identities (Central European, European, etc.).

In order to maintain the traditional concept of national identity and to legitimize itself, nationalism advocates antimodern and anti-democratic ideologies. There are two basic tenets of the new wave of anti-democratism.

(i) On the one hand we have the age-old, "classical" ideologies characterized by nationalism, anti-semitism, anti-liberalism, economic protectionism, and strong resistance to modernization; they are taken out from the "deep freezer" of communism.

(ii) On the other hand, we are witnessing in Hungary as well as in most European countries, the appearance of a new kind of rightist ideology. The new right is characterized by the cult of "ethnic identity", which implies the idea of ethnic purity and the demand of the exclusion of "culturally alien" elements in the society.

In this respect, the present war in ex-Yugoslavia is a completely new kind of war, in which all parts pursuit the vision of an "absolute identity". These phenomena also blatantly appear in the propaganda of the Hungarian right-wing. The paper will demonstrate concrete examples of this discourse. Survey data concerning nationalist symptoms in Hungary will also be presented.

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NATIONAL IDENTIFICATION: HOW SLIPPERY IS THE SLOPE FROM PATRIOTISM TO NATIONALISM?.

MUMMENDEY, Amelie and SIMON, Bernd; University of Muenster, Muenster, Federal Republic of Germany.

In contrast to nationalism, patriotism has often been conceived of as an innocuous, perhaps even desirable variant of national identification. Whereas nationalism may necessarily imply derogation of or even aggression against outgroups, patriotism may simply involve a positive cognitive, affective and evaluative unitrelationship with one's one country or nation. In other words, patriotism may ensure equality (or equity) and solidarity within one's national ingroup without negative consequences or "sideseffects" on the relationship with national outgroups. On the other hand, however, one may also argue that patriotism might merely be a milder form or early stage of nationalism that easily degenerates into full-blown nationalism.

In this paper, we examine these alternative conceptualizations of patriotism and nationalism from the perspective of social identity theory and present relevant empirical data.

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REGIONAL AND NATIONAL IDENTITY AS ASPECTS OF SELF IDENTITY.

TROMMSDORFF, Gisela and REIBER, Esther; University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Federal Republic of Germany.

This paper deals with subjective meaning of national, regional and European identity. It is often argued that despite the process of internationalization, regional identification retains much subjective importance. However, so far the cognitive and socio-emotional basis of these aspects of identification are not yet clear. Interviews with adults between 25 and 55 years of age were carried out to specify the subjective importance of different objects for identification; in particular the emotional quality, and the cultural and political basis of regional, national, and European identity and life satisfaction were assessed. The data are discussed with respect to issues of identity formation and its socio-emotional bases.